to produce them; and so are truly what they are, and are intended to be. Indeed, the names may be misapplied; but that in this respect makes no falsehood in the ideas: as if a man ignorant in the English tongue should call purple "scarlet."

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17. Secondly. Modes not false.-Secondly. Neither can complex ideas of modes, in reference to the essence of any thing really existing, be false. Because whatever complex idea I have of any mode, it hath no reference to any pattern existing, and made by nature it is not supposed to contain in it any other ideas than what it hath, nor to represent any thing but such a complication of ideas as it does. Thus when I have the idea of such an action of a man who forbears to afford himself such meat, drink, and clothing, and other conveniencies of life as his riches and estate will be sufficient to supply and his station requires, I have no false idea; but such an one as represents an action, either as I find or imagine it; and so is capable of neither truth nor falsehood. But when I give the name "frugality" or "virtue" to this action, then it may be called a false idea, if thereby it be supposed to agree with that idea to which, in propriety of speech, the name of "frugality" doth belong, or to be conformable to that law which is the standard of virtue and vice.

18. Thirdly. Ideas of substances, when false.-Thirdly. Our complex ideas of substances, being all referred to patterns in things themselves, may be false. That they are all false when looked upon as the representations of the unknown essences of things, is so evident that there needs nothing to be said of it. I shall therefore pass over that chimerical supposition, and consider them as collections of simple ideas in the mind, taken from combinations of simple ideas existing together constantly in things, of which patterns they are the supposed copies: and in this reference of them to the existence of things, they are false ideas: (1.) When they put together simple ideas, which in the real existence of things have no union; as when to the shape and size that exist together in a horse, is joined in the same complex idea the power of barking like a dog: which three ideas, however put together into one in the mind, were never united in nature; and this therefore may be called a false idea of a horse. (2.) Ideas of substances are in this respect also false, when, from any collection of simple ideas that do always exist together, there is separated, by a direct negation, any other simple idea which is constantly joined with them. Thus, if to extension, solidity, fusibility, the peculiar weightiness, and yellow colour of gold, any one join in his thoughts the negation of a greater degree of fixedness than is in lead or copper, he may be said to have a false complex idea, as well as when he joins to those other simple ones the idea of perfect, absolute fixedness. For, either way, the complex idea of gold, being made up of such simple ones as have no union in nature, may be termed false. But if he leave out of this his complex idea that of fixedness quite, without either actually joining to or separating of it from the rest in his mind, it is, I think, to be looked on as an inadequate and imperfect idea, rather than a false one; since, though it contains not all the simple ideas

that are united in nature, yet it puts none together but what do really exist together.

19. Truth or falsehood always supposes affirmation or negation.Though, in compliance with the ordinary way of speaking, I have showed in what sense and upon what ground our ideas may be sometimes called true or false; yet if we will look a little nearer into the matter, in all cases where any idea is called true or false, it is from some judgment that the mind makes, or is supposed to make, that is true or false. For, truth or falsehood being never without some affirmation or negation, express or tacit, it is not to be found but where signs are joined or separated, according to the agreement or disagreement of the things they stand for. The signs we chiefly use are either ideas or words wherewith we make either mental or verbal propositions. Truth lies in so joining or separating these representatives as the things they stand for do in themselves agree or disagree; and falsehood in the contrary, as shall be more fully showed hereafter.

20. Ideas in themselves neither true nor false.—Any idea, then, which we have in our minds, whether conformable or not to the existence of things, or to any ideas in the minds of other men, cannot properly for this alone be called false. For these representations, if they have nothing in them but what is really existing in things without, cannot be thought false, being exact representations of something: nor yet if they have any thing in them differing from the reality of things, can they properly be said to be false representations or ideas of things they do not represent. But the mistake and falsehood is,

21. But are false, First. When judged agreeable to another man's idea without being so.-First. When the mind having any idea, it judges and concludes it the same that is in other men's minds, signified by the same name; or that it is conformable to the ordinary, received signification or definition of that word, when indeed it is not which is the most usual mistake in mixed modes, though other ideas also are liable to it.

22. Secondly. When judged to agree to real existence, when they do not. Secondly. When it having a complex idea made up of such a collection of simple ones as nature never puts together, it judges it to agree to a species of creatures really existing; as when it joins the weight of tin to the colour, fusibility, and fixedness of gold.

23. Thirdly. When judged adequate, without being so.- Thirdly. When in its complex idea it has united a certain number of simple ideas that do really exist together in some sorts of creatures, but has also left out others as much inseparable, it judges this to be a perfect complete idea of a sort of things which really it is not; v. g. having joined the ideas of substance, yellow, malleable, most heavy, and fusible, it takes that complex idea to be the complete idea of gold, when yet its peculiar fixedness and solubility in aqua regia are as inseparable from those other ideas or qualities of that body as they are one from another.

24. Fourthly. When judged to represent the real essence.

Fourthly. The mistake is yet greater when I judge that this complex idea contains in it the real essence of any body existing, when at least it contains but some few of those properties which flow from its real essence and constitution. I say, only some few of those properties; for, those properties consisting mostly in the active and passive powers it has in reference to other things, all that are vulgarly known of any one body, and of which the complex idea of that kind of things is usually made, are but a very few in comparison of what a man, that has several ways tried and examined it, knows of that one sort of things; and all that the most expert man knows are but few in comparison of what are really in that body, and depend on its internal or essential constitution. The essence of a triangle lies in a very little compass, consists in a very few ideas; three lines, including a space, make up that essence: but the properties that flow from this essence are more than can be easily known or enumerated. So I imagine it is in substances: their real essences lie in a little compass; though the properties flowing from that internal constitution are endless.

25. Ideas, when false.-To conclude: A man having no notion of any thing without him but by the idea he has of it in his mind, (which idea he has a power to call by what name he pleases,) he may, indeed, make an idea neither answering the reality of things, nor agreeing to the ideas commonly signified by other people's words; but cannot make a wrong or false idea of a thing which is no otherwise known to him but by the idea he has of it; v. g. when I frame an idea of the legs, arms, and body of a man, and join to this a horse's head and neck, I do not make a false idea of any thing; because it represents nothing without me. But when I call it a "man" or "Tartar," and imagine it either to represent some real being without me, or to be the same idea that others call by the same name; in either of these cases I may err. And upon this account it is that it comes to be termed a "false idea;" though, indeed, the falsehood lies not in the idea, but in that tacit mental proposition, wherein a conformity and resemblance is attributed to it which it has not. But yet, if, having framed such an idea in my mind, without thinking either that existence, or the name "man" or "Tartar," belongs to it, I will call it "man" or "Tartar,” I may be justly thought fantastical in the naming, but not erroneous in my judgment, nor the idea any way false.

26. More properly to be called "right" or "wrong."-Upon the whole matter, I think, that our ideas, as they are considered by the mind, either in reference to the proper signification of their names, or in reference to the reality of things, may very fitly be called "right" or "wrong" ideas, according as they agree or disagree to those patterns to which they are referred. But if any one had rather call them "true" or "false," it is fit he use a liberty which every one has to call things by those names he thinks best; though, in propriety of speech, "truth" or "falsehood" will, I think, scarce agree to them, but as they, some way or other, virtually contain in them some mental proposition. The ideas that are in a man's mind, simply considered, cannot be wrong, unless complex ones,

wherein inconsistent parts are jumbled together. All other ideas are in themselves right; and the knowledge about them, right and true knowledge: but when we come to refer them to any thing, as to their patterns and archetypes, then they are capable of being wrong, as far as they disagree with such archetypes.

CHAPTER XXXIII.

OF THE ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS.

1. Something unreasonable in most men. -There is scarce any one that does not observe something that seems odd to him, and is in itself really extravagant, in the opinions, reasonings, and actions of other men. The least flaw of this kind, if at all different from his own, every one is quick-sighted enough to espy in another, and will by the authority of reason forwardly condemn, though he be guilty of much greater unreasonableness in his own tenets and conduct, which he never perceives, and will very hardly, if at all, be convinced of.

2. Not wholly from self-love.-This proceeds not wholly from self-love, though that has often a great hand in it. Men of fair minds, and not given up to the over-weening of self-flattery, are frequently guilty of it; and in many cases one with amazement hears the arguings, and is astonished at the obstinacy, of a worthy man who yields not to the evidence of reason, though laid before him as clear as day-light.

3. Nor from education.-This sort of unreasonableness is usually imputed to education and prejudice, and for the most part truly enough, though that reaches not the bottom of the disease, nor shows distinctly enough whence it rises or wherein it lies. Education is often rightly assigned for the cause, and prejudice is a good general name for the thing itself: but yet, I think, he ought to look a little farther who would trace this sort of madness to the root it springs from, and so explain it as to show whence this flaw has its original in very sober and rational minds, and wherein it consists.

4. A degree of madness.-I shall be pardoned for calling it by so harsh a name as "madness," when it is considered, that opposition to reason deserves that name, and is really madness; and there is scarce a man so free from it but that if he should always, on all occasions, argue or do as in some cases he constantly does, would not be thought fitter for Bedlam than civil conversation. I do not here mean when he is under the power of an unruly passion, but in the steady calm course of his life. That which will yet more apologize for this harsh name, and ungrateful imputation on the greatest part of mankind, is, that inquiring a little by-the-by into the nature of madness, (book ii. chap. xi. sect. 13,) I found it to spring from the very same root, and to depend on the very same cause, we are here speaking of. This consideration of the thing itself, at a time when I thought not the least on the subject which I am now treating of, suggested it to me. And if this be a weak

ness to which all men are so liable, if this be a taint which so universally infects mankind, the greater care should be taken to lay it open under its due name, thereby to excite the greater care in its prevention and cure.

5. From a wrong connexion of ideas. Some of our ideas have a natural correspondence and connexion one with another: it is the office and excellency of our reason to trace these, and hold them together in that union and correspondence which is founded in their peculiar beings. Besides this, there is another connexion of ideas wholly owing to chance or custom: ideas that in themselves are not at all of kin, come to be so united in some men's minds that it is very hard to separate them; they always keep in company, and the one no sooner at any time comes into the understanding, but its associate appears with it; and if they are more than two which are thus united, the whole gang, always inseparable, show themselves together.

6. This connexion, how made.—This strong combination of ideas, not allied by nature, the mind makes in itself either voluntarily or by chance; and hence it comes in different men to be very different, according to their different inclinations, educations, interests, &c. Custom settles habits of thinking in the understanding, as well as of determining in the will, and of motions in the body; all which seem to be but trains of motion in the animal spirits, which, once set a-going, continue in the same steps they have been used to, which, by often treading, are worn into a smooth path, and the motion in it becomes easy, and as it were natural. As far as we can comprehend thinking, thus ideas seem to be produced in our minds; or if they are not, this may serve to explain their following one another in an habitual train, when once they are put into that track, as well as it does to explain such motions of the body. A musician used to any tune will find, that, let it but once begin in his head, the ideas of the several notes of it will follow one another orderly in his understanding, without any care or attention, as regularly as his fingers move orderly over the keys of the organ to play out the tune he has begun, though his unattentive thoughts be elsewhere a-wandering. Whether the natural cause of these ideas, as well as of that regular dancing of his fingers, be the motion of his animal spirits, I will not determine, how probable soever by this instance it appears to be so: but this may help us a little to conceive of intellectual habits, and of the tying together of ideas

7. Some antipathies an effect of it.-That there are such associations of them made by custom in the minds of most men, I think nobody will question who has well considered himself or others; and to this, perhaps, might be justly attributed most of the sympathies and antipathies observable in men, which work as strongly, and produce as regular effects, as if they were natural, and are therefore called so, though they at first had no other original but the accidental connexion of two ideas; which either the strength of the first impression or future indulgence so united, that they always afterwards kept company together in that man's mind, as