the professors, and the dean of each faculty by its colleagues. The rector is now appointed by the Czar, the deans by the minister. When a chair becomes vacant the minister fills it either by choosing an incumbent himself or by authorizing the university to designate a candidate and to propose his confirmation. The university council has jurisdiction over any infringement of the rules by the students; it confers degrees, distributes prizes, regulates programmes, etc. The curator del egates a person to act as inspector of the university of his educational district, and designates certain assistants to act as his aids. Such is the system of supervision throughout the Russian 'dominions. The complaint is often made that there is too much authority, for, in addition to the numerous officials mentioned above, there are also many petty officials who report the slightest infringement to the nearest educational officer, and he in turn draws up a statement to be sent to the central authorities.

TEACHERS.

PREPARATION.

In order to prepare persons to undertake the proper instruction of children, Catherine II created, in 1783, a people's higher school, which was soon after converted into a teachers' seminary, and which from 1786 to 1801 trained about 425 teachers for such purpose. Reorganized in 1803 under the name of gymnasia for teachers, it was attached to the central pedagogical institute in St. Petersburg. This plan was, however, not successful, and in 1828 a training school for teachers of the Baltic provinces was established under governmental auspices, and in 1864 a second school for the northwest provinces was established at Molodetchno in the government of Vilna. In other parts of the Empire pedagogical courses were considered sufficient preparation for teachers until in 1869, when a third training school was opened at Kief, and a fourth at Riga in 1870. Since 1871 persons who are to become teachers in elementary grades are generally instructed in pedagogical institutes or pedagogical seminaries, which last are nonreligious in character, and, in fact, so neglect religion that the minister of public instruction proposes to bring about a reform in this matter. In the pedagogical institutes teachers are trained for the higher elementary grades. The students consist of persons who are at least 16 years of age, and who have been successful in their studies in the elementary grades, and have spent one year acting as assistant teacher. The course of study in the institutes is of three years, and graduates therefrom hold a tenth rank in the civil hierarchy. Such institutes are found in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Glonkhov, Vilna, Theodosia, Jitomir, Tiflis, Kazan, Bielgorod, and Orenburg. A diploma from a training school is obligatory for persons who desire to teach in city schools, The pedagogical seminaries are for the preparation of teachers for the lower elementary grades. They admit persons from 18 to 22 years of

1 Described in page 199.

age who are exempt from military service. Those who receive state subsidies to aid them through the course are pledged to serve at lease four years as teachers in elementary grades. There are eighty-nine of these seminaries in towns of second and third rank, and even in villages in different parts of Russia.

In Moscow there is also a pedagogical seminary for girls, of at least 15 years of age, who are familiar with the elementary branches. The course is of four years, at the end of which they are prepared to teach in the higher elementary schools. Many of the women teachers in elementary grades are graduated from secondary schools. In St. Petersburg and Moscow there are also training schools for teachers of infant and maternal schools. There are no special institutions preparing persons to hold professorships in the higher educational institutions. The professors in these institutes must all have degrees accorded to them in the universities where they must have passed through the different phases of student, candidate, magister, and doctor, according as they have fulfilled required conditions and duly discussed written theses. There are numerous institutions for persons desiring to become teachers in secondary grade schools. They are generally private boarding schools, the students of which receive a small subsidy for the payment of expenses.

These conditions require that they agree to serve the state by teaching for four, five, or six years, according to the amount which they have received from the government funds. Connected with the ministry of war are similar institutions for training, with three-year courses; conneeted with the ministry of the interior are such schools for the study of Oriental languages. The Historico-Philological Institute of St. Petersburg, opened in 1867, makes a specialty of thorough study in the classics, and in a four-years' course trains teachers in the Slavonic and ancient languages and literature. To enter this institute the completion of gymnasial studies is requisite; its students are preparing themselves to teach in the secondary schools, i. e., gymnasia, progymnasia, and real schools. Pedagogical courses at St. Petersburg, of three years in duration (which include the history of the literature of three languages) train young women as teachers, in reality reviewing the studies which they have had in secondary schools (institutes or gymnasia). These courses are for day pupils and the students have opportunities for practice-teaching. French classes are also formed in the provinces for those who wish to make a specialty of French instruction. Young women are admitted who have obtained the highest awards in the provincial institutes. Instruction is given in French in a two-years' course, and the students agree to give six years' service as teachers provided they do not marry in the meantime. The title of professor is given only to teachers connected with the universities, with the academies of fine arts, etc. In the universities there are also privat docenten, who receive pay from the State, and tutors who teach modern languages and liter

ature. In the elementary and secondary grades of schools the title of teacher, outchiteli, is the only one given.

Teachers' institutes, or pedagogical conferences, occur periodically, and the teachers gather together for the exchange of thought respecting methods of instruction, questions of pedagogy and discipline, and the discussions also pertain to instruction in language, arithmetic, natural history, singing, drawing, choice of best books, and the most efficacious methods of instruction to be employed throughout the school course. Papers are read by those present, and especially by the women teachers from elementary schools. The Russian Government endeavors in every way to facilitate the holding of these conferences. As far back as 1872 such conferences were held, with the consent of the minister of public instruction, in forty-seven divisions of the different governments, under the direction of thoroughly trained pedagogues; who in turn were supervised by the inspectors of elementary schools; the expenses of such institutes were borne by the provinces.

EXAMINATIONS.

A commission connected with the ministry of public instruction has the charge of examining candidates of both sexes who desire to obtain permission to teach without being graduates of training schools. In order to be admitted to teach in the governmental schools a diploma is requisite. Of the two kinds of diplomas the one entitles to give lessons in private schools, the other in public schools. The first is generally a certificate given at close of the courses for young women who have been successful in passing the final examination. The other is only given by the commission appointed for examination of persons desiring to teach. Strangers who come to Russia, with the express purpose of teaching, are obliged to be examined by the commission, no matter what diplomas they may have received in other countries. This rigorous measure was necessitated by the fact that bogus diplomas were given in certain countries. Foreign candidates are required to be sufficiently familiar with Latin to write a short composition and also to translate a simple Latin text into Russian. Strangers are also admitted to examinations, the passing of which authorizes them to instruct in history and geography in institutes and boarding schools. Young women who desire to give home education receive a diploma for such teaching, after passing an examination in the Governmental institutions where they have been under instruction. In St. Petersburg, Moscow, and twentysix other capitals there are special secondary schools for young women belonging to the families of the clergy; which schools, in a six years' course, prepare graduates to receive diplomas giving them the right to teach in families. It is stated that of the present teaching staff, onethird have received a superior education in the middle class schools and seminaries, about one-third hold certificates from the training schools, and the remainder are persons of less educational training.

APPOINTMENT.

The curator in each government attends to the appointment of teachers in the gymnasia and scientific schools in that section. The inspector authorizes the appointment of teachers in the elementary grades, dismisses the teacher if not satisfactory to him, closes the school, modifies the curriculum, etc. In the schools carried on by the clergy, teachers are permitted to hold position through lettres d'obédience given by the bishop. Rectors of universities were formerly elected by the professors; but since 1884 the Czar appoints the rector, who is generally selected by the minister of public Instruction from one of three candidates chosen from among the professors. The dean of each faculty is no longer elected by his colleagues, but is appointed by the minister. The professors are selected by vote, but the minister appoints them.

SALARIES.

In the elementary grades the position of a teacher is not as precarious as one might surmise. In the primary schools of rural districts the salaries vary from $92 to $277, but for more than half of the teachers the salary ranges below $231. Ordinarily the teachers are provided with lodging and garden, but sometimes they are most poorly housed in one room or even a corner of a room. In urban and district schools teachers have lodgings, and their emoluments reach from $386 to $482. Women teachers have equal privileges with the men, and in many localities they greatly preponderate in numbers. In the progymnasia for girls the salaries rank from $669 for the school inspector and $502 for the mistress in charge-free lodging being included in both casesto $223 for the dames-de-classe, or class ladies. In the institutes for girls, the lady directress receives $1,953 with lodging; the assistant teachers, $1,004. In training schools a few years ago the directors received $1,116 and certain privileges or fees; the teachers, from $223 to $669. The emoluments in the gymnasia were from $1,116, with free lodgings, for the director, to $413 for each master. The master gives twelve lessons each week, and at the end of fifteen years his salary is increased by regular gradation to $837.

PENSIONS.

All persons holding the position of teacher under state authority are considered as entitled to an annual pension after a certain number of years' service. Many of the school functionaries in the country districts are not considered as employés of the state, and consequently are not entitled to pensions, and, up to a late date, not even the most modest pension was accorded to women teachers. In district and urban schools teachers receive a pension of from $231 to $277. A director of a gymnasia would receive about $446 as his share after giving the requisite service to the Government.

By very early laws teachers who are recognized by the minister of public instruction as being in the service are presumed to be able

to fulfill the functions for twenty-five years and are then entitled to a pension, but if they are still equal to the requirements of their posi tion, they can occupy the place for five years longer, receiving during the latter period both salary and pension. Another five years' period of teaching is also allowable with an addition of one-fifth to the pension. A professor, according to law of 1835, receives the title emeritus after twenty-five years of service, but, if able, he can still fill the position for a five years' period. The law of 1863 continued this plan, only it required a vote of two-thirds of the council to decide whether the person was fitted for an extension of the time of service. As cases of unfitness for further duty were reported to the minister a law of March 31, 1869, modified the decision by requiring a majority vote in the council. This was further modified by the commission of 1875 deciding that the reappointment after twenty-five years of service depended upon the professor's wishes, as sanctioned by the curator with the consent of the minister, but after thirty years' service he was to obtain the full pension of 3,000 rubles and not fill a professorship, although if desirable he might still remain a member of the faculty, and if allowed by the curator, take charge of a preparatory institute. The pensioning and remuneration in the case of an extra five years' period were not determined by this commission, but were left for further discussion.

COURSES OF STUDY.

In the infant and maternal schools the child of from 3 to 10 takes its first steps in education, its powers of observation are trained and it learns the first elements; in many of the schools kindergarten methods are found. Asylums, which rank below or with the elementary grades, are for children between 7 and 12 years of age. The instruction aims to give the neces sary elements of knowledge and to thoroughly inculcate religious and moral ideas. Here, too, Fröbell's methods are used. The elementary grades take cognizance of the immediate surroundings of the pupils, the earliest lessons being by the intuitive method, the regulations including the mother tongue (i. e., elements of Russian grammar), reading from manuscript and printed matter, writing, arithmetic through the first four rules, and singing. In the villages and hamlets there are two or three classes, if the attendance permits. In cities the higher grade elementary schools have in their six-year courses geography, Russian history, fractions, geometry, object drawing and drawing from copy, singing (especially church chants). If feasible, a trade is added for the boys and needlework for the girls. At the close of the course pupils are entitled to enter the governmental service without extra examination, and after a four years' course they are presumed to be fitted for the gymnasia. The district schools, maintained by the ministry of public instruction, and gradually being transformed into city schools, have a course of study in which religious instruction occupies an important place; arithmetic is limited to addition, subtraction, multiplication,