instruction, as understood in this country, is imparted in schools whose classification is determined rather by social than by scholastic considerations. The schools of the secondary or middle class in Ireland are either private or endowed. Most of the latter are of ancient date, and although in many cases founded for the benefit of the poor and lowly, have come to be almost exclusively the privilege of the gentry; they are classical schools of the traditional order.

In 1878 an intermediate education board was established by Government to maintain examinations for schools of this class and to dispense Government aid to them in the form of payments for success at examinations or, as it is called, "upon results." Judging by the increase in the number of pupils seeking the examinations, this has proved a popu lar scheme. The number rose from 3,954 (3,218 boys, 736 girls) in 1879 to 5,236 (3,943 boys, 1,293 girls). The amount of results fees paid to managers of schools on account of these examinations was £13,687 6s. ($66,520); the number of schools sharing in the same, 244.1

The oldest institution for superior instruction in Ireland is the University of Dublin (Trinity College), chartered by Queen Elizabeth.

Besides the arts faculty, schools of law, divinity, medicine, and engineering are comprised in this foundation. Roman Catholics were not permitted to take degrees in the university until 1793, when the disability was removed by an act of Parliament. Eighty years passed before they were allowed recognition in the election for fellowships or for scholarships on the foundation of the college. Meanwhile, in 1854, a class of nonfoundation scholarships was established which were not restricted to any religious denomination. The final abolition of "tests," excepting in the case of professors and lecturers in the faculty of theology, was accomplished by act of Parliament in 1873, through the direct efforts of Mr. Fawcett, at that time postmaster-general.

Until 1850 the University of Dublin was the only body in Ireland authorized by law to confer degrees.

In 1849 three institutions, called Queen's Colleges, were established by the Government at Cork, Belfast, and Galway, respectively, for the avowed purpose of maintaining purely secular instruction. In pursuance of this purpose the colleges were organized with faculties of arts, engineering, law, and medicine, theology being excluded. Parliament voted the money for buildings and equipment, and an annual appropriation of £7,000 ($34,000) for each foundation. In the following year the work was completed by the creation of the Queen's University in Ireland, empowered to conduct degree examinations for the students of the Queen's Colleges. In 1879 this foundation was abolished and the Royal University created in its place. The examinations and degrees of this university are open to all candidates, women included. Alex

As to the tendency of this policy to foster superficial attainments, see the article by Prof. Mahaffy alluded to on p. 162.

andra College, founded in 1866 for the higher education of women, prepares women for the degree examinations.

The movements of which the Queen's Colleges and the Royal University were the outcome are inextricably involved with the political and religious history of the country. The outcome on the side of the Catholic party, which has maintained a struggle for the official recognition of a university of its own, is the college of the Catholic University, Dublin, founded in 1854.

The rivalry of the universities and denominational zeal appear to stimulate the interest in higher education. Dublin University enjoys a prestige which even those who have suffered from its intolerance in the past recognize with pride. The preparations for the tercentenary of this university, appointed for July, 1892, call forth from every center of learning high praise for its scholastic distinction and for the number and valuable achievements of its illustrious graduates.

To complete the enumeration of superior institutions, mention should be made of the Royal College of Science, Dublin, which is maintained by the science and art department. This is a high-grade scientific school, whose courses of instruction prepare students for the degree examinations of the Royal University.

The same department maintains at Dublin a museum of science and art, which includes also a national library. The numbers annually visiting the various departments of this museum (344,071 in 1890) testify to the popular appreciation of their advantages.

The recent census (1891) reveals a favorable view of the results of education in the country. The census commissioners observe that "the progress achieved in both primary and superior instruction may be considered the most gratifying fact elicited by the census. In 1881 the percentage of wholly illiterate persons was 25.2, whereas in 1891 it reached no more than 18.4 per cent. Of the whole population above 5 years of age, 70.6 per cent could read and write at the latter date as compared with 59.3 per cent in 1881. The addition to the number of schools and of pupils has been relatively small."1

The improvement in material conditions which is also brought out by the census must be regarded as another favorable indication of the effects of the educational system.

In this connection it should be observed that the returns show "a decrease of no less than 15.7 per cent in the number of children under 15 years of age as compared with the returns of the previous decade (1881). This decrease reaches 18 per cent among children 5 to 10 years old, and 19 per cent among children 1 to 5 years. Analysis of the returns makes it evident that this decrease is not due to emigration alone, but is the proof of a check in the normal increase of the population." (London Times, August 19, 1892.)

CHAPTER VII.

INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN CENTRAL

EUROPE.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION.-(1) Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, edited by Conrad, Elster, Lexis and Loening. Article: Gewerblicher Unterricht, by Dr. Carl Roscher, which has been freely used and translated—(2) Statistik der landwirthschaftlichen und zweckverwandten Unterrichts-Anstalten Preussens, 1890-(3) Jahrbuch des Unterrichtswesens in der Schweiz, 1890, by C. Grob―(4) Statistik der Unterrichtsanstalten in Oesterreich, 1889-'90-(5) Statistik des Unterrichts- und Erziehungswesens in Würtemberg, 1890-'91.

I. GENERAL STATEMENT.-(1) Origin—(2) Classification—(3) Connection of industrial schools with one another, and (4) with practical life—(5) Frequent faults of such schools. Sunday and evening schools—(6) Compulsory attendance—(7) Sources of revenue (8) Teachers--(9) Means of instruction—(10) Local supervision—(11) School exhibitions—(12) Literature, statistics, and history.

II. CLASSES OF SCHOOLS.-(A) Industrial continuation schools, and public draftsmen's rooms-(B) Industrial schools for women—(C) Lower industrial or trade schools; workshops, schools for builders, and schools for foremen-(D) Secondary industrial and commercial schools-(E) Schools of design; museums of industrial art— (F) Polytechnica or technical universities.

I. GENERAL STATEMENT.

(1) Origin. The inventions of modern times have perfected many old industries, such as spinning and weaving, and led to the establishment of new ones, such as the building of engines, labor-saving machines, locomotives, and steamships, and the chemical and electric industries. The former mode of perspective drawing has been supplemented by parallel projection, according to the principles of which working drawings are made, which furnish the means of easy and accurate measurement. This has greatly promoted progress in technical pursuits. The liberty of trade, which is barely 50 years old in central Europe, has added another incentive to technical education; it has increased the demands on the talents of industrial men. To develop these talents and special aptitudes is the aim of industrial schools, the youngest branch of the modern school system.

France took the lead in this. German experts, like Eitelberger and von Dumreicher, emphasized the fact that the strength of French textiles, for instance, and the greater value of the products of French art

industry, were not owing to the greater innate talents of French laborers, but to their better and more appropriate schooling in labor. This special education had been going on in France from the time of Colbert (minister of finance of Louis XIV). Indisputable proofs of this have been furnished by the various world's expositions, especially that of Philadelphia in 1876, from which city the German commissioner, Prof. Reuleaux, reported to the Imperial Government, "Our goods are cheap, but poor." These expositions opened the eyes of intelligent men to the great inadequacy of the existing institutions for industrial education, and it may be said that German industry thereupon took an upward start most gratifying in its results, since it was consistently planned and aided by the establishment of higher institutions for technical and industrial pursuits.

The entire system of technical and industrial schools of central Europe (Germany, Austria, and Switzerland) is still in its youth, hence many questions concerning it are yet under discussion; course and method of instruction are still mooted problems, and much less definitely settled than those of elementary and secondary schools for general culture. Another cause that retards an early settlement is the fact that laymen who represent various interests assume to dictate in the management and plans of these schools; hence it is that sometimes the results attained by such schools are not commensurate with the outlay, and their usefulness is questioned.

These schools are established and maintained chiefly by committees and trade unions; by the latter in Saxony, Hessia, Nassau, and Switzerland. When the funds of these are insufficient, or the needs of the country demand it, for instance, for the promotion of the building trades, industrial art, or technical universities, schools maintained by the state are justified. Only in exceptional cases does the state maintain lower industrial schools, in Austria more frequently than in other countries. In some cases the state encourages and subsidizes lower schools, and in others the revivifying and stirring influence and active participation of individual leaders furnish the necessary impetus for the establishment of such schools, and at times also for their mainte

nance.

(2) Classification.-According to the requirements of admission and the objects of the schools they are classed as (a) lower, (b) secondary industrial schools, and (e) art schools and polytechnica. According to the time when instruction is given they are classed as (a) day, (b) evening, and (e) Sunday schools. According to their aim they are classed in industrial continuation schools and trade schools. Beside these classes we may divide the schools into those for boys and those for girls, also into public and private schools. When comparing the statistics of these schools, care must be taken to consider the time devoted to studies; thus, for instance, a three-years' course in an industrial continuation school with four weekly hours of instruction (equal to four hu

and

eighty hours), is about equal to fourteen weeks of instruction in an industrial day school with thirty-five hours per week.

(3) Organic connection of industrial and technical schools.-Among industrial schools the practical relation of one class of schools to other classes is not well defined. This may be the cause why some, like agricultural and various trade schools, are given over to the supervision of one governmental department while art schools and polytechnica are given to another. An organic connection is as yet not practicable, although the necessity makes itself felt quite keenly. In the system of schools for general culture and the learned professions the division and limitation of each grade of schools have developed in the course of time owing to the scientific unity, the so-called universitas literarum. The distinctions between general and industrial continuation schools, between technical and trade schools, between lower and secondary technical schools, and between secondary and higher schools, or polytechnica-have nowhere been sharply drawn. This makes extremely difficult a definite grouping of these institutions according to plan and course of study, as well as a mutual understanding among themselves regarding their respective functions.

(4) Connection of industrial schools with industrial life; chief supervisory authorities.-This connection is very important, since the schools are to serve practical life. A fulfillment of the following conditions promotes the connection:

(a) Selection of location: Professional schools that depend upon constant contact with workshops and factories must be located in centers of industrial activity, and must be near to the branches of industry they are to serve.

(b) Students: Preliminary practical work or experience gained in workshops is frequently a condition of admission to trade schools. Practical work side by side with academic instruction and separation of the students according to trades in industrial continuation schools, aid in connecting industrial education and practical life.

(c) Course of study and methods of instruction: The connection of industrial education with industrial pursuits must not only exist but be thoroughly understood by the students. The more the industrial schools place in the foreground studies which can be immediately utilized in the workshop, and the more they promote technical ability (especially drawing), the more will they rise in the estimation of masters and workmen. In arithmetic, for instance, accuracy and skill are the most essential aims, hence restriction to the simplest modes of solving problems is necessary. In geometry it is much less the logical proof than it is practical application that must be considered; in drawing it is not so much ornamental as it is technical drawing, parallel projection, or the making of working drawings. Side by side with the technical the economic side of an industrial pursuit is to be considered, thus particular attention is paid to bookkeeping and the consideration