by a circular addressed to the principals (proviseurs) of the lycées. His instructions were directed both to the spirit and to the methods of work. He urged the necessity of freer life within the schools, insisted upon gymnastics, military exercises, and out-door sports and excur sions, and called for radical changes in the methods of instruction as the only means of affording relief from the unnatural strain of brain. work. Two exercises in particular he sought to eliminate, the making of Latin verses and translations oral and written from French into Latin (thèmes). Time was thus to be gained both in class and in study hours for other subjects, particularly for foreign languages. "Every student," he observes, "must make choice either of English or of German." These and other new subjects were to be pursued without the sacrifice of anything essential in the old, the latter being simply reduced to fair proportions.'

The influence of this circular is to be seen in every subsequent effort at reform. It was final as regards Latin verse; the thème remains, but is greatly restricted. By the liberty which it gave to the principals, this circular also made a break in the uniformity and the rigid organization of the schools in favor of individuality and the spirit of emulation. The movement in this direction has been accelerated by the influence of the Ligue nationale de l'éducation publique, and by the example of private schools, especially the École Monge, at Paris, which have entered the lists unhampered by traditional practices.

While new impulses were thus set in motion within the lycées, the demand for a reorganization of studies continued, and in 1888 a commission was appointed by the minister to deal with the problem. Their recommendations formed the basis of the decrees already mentioned (decrees of August 8, 18903 and June 4, 18914); the former pertaining to the general organization of the regular course of study, the latter to the special course. As the commission was under the presidency of Jules Simon, and composed largely of men in accord with his views, its work naturally follows the lines laid down in his circular as already specified. Indeed in his instruction to the principals accompanying the new decrees and programmes, M. Léon Bourgeois, minister of public instruction at the time of their issue, covers substantially the same ground as his predecessor. He emphasizes the order relative to physical training and exercise, advocates better methods of instruction, insists upon the elimination of useless exercises, leaves much freedom to the principals in respect to the daily routine, and urges the need of a more natural and spontaneous activity among the students.5

Sce circular to MM. les Proviseurs sur l'enseignement secondaire, Statistique de l'enseignement secondaire, 1876, pp. 412-428.

2 Revue internationale de l'enseignement, August 15, 1888, p. 190.

3]

3 Bulletin administratif, No. 918 (August 16, 1890), pp. 247-260.

Ibid, No. 960 (June 13, 1891), p. 570.

Ibid., No. 922, 1890, supplement.

ED 91-8

The new programmes and comparison with the old. The modifications in the regular course of study under the new scheme may be seen by a comparison of class work required under programmes authorized at successive periods of reform-viz, 1865,1880, 1885, and 1890, respectively. The time assigned to class work may properly be made the unit of comparison if we keep in mind (1) the nature of class work. This consists chiefly of the examination of exercises (devoirs) accomplished in study hours and a survey of the subject-matter of the succeeding exercises. There is little interchange of ideas and knowledge between student and professors, such as takes place in our recitations; this is indeed a feature which the reformers are endeavoring to change, and the new regulations call for more oral repetitions than heretofore. Instruction, as we understand the word, has been and still is in large measure the work of the tutors (maîtres répétiteurs) in extra class hours rather than of the professors. (2) That the time assigned to study and exercises out of class is nearly double that given to class work-i. e., 7 hours against 4 hours a day.

With these facts in mind the following tables pertaining to the classical course of the lycées are suggestive. It should be observed that the elementary division and the class of philosophy are excluded from the view:

Table showing for classical course in lycées percentage of time in class each wock from sixième through rhetoric.

Sixth (sixième).
Fifth (cinquième).

Third (troisième,

Second.

P. et. P. et. P. ct.
8.33 12.50

1865. 1880. 1885. 1890. 1865. 1880. 1885. 1890. 1865. 1880. 1885. 1890,

P. ct. P. ct. P. ct. P. et.
70.83 54.16 65 65.00

10

Fourth (quatrième).

Rhetoric.

P. ct. P. ct.
15 12.50
15 12.50
15
15 12.19

12.50

10

7.32 11.53 16.00

15 12.19 10 12. 19 11.53 16.00 15 12.19

a Two hours were assigned for drawing each week in addition to the twenty hours of required class time.

7.50 4. 16
7.50
7.32

4.00

4.00 25 25 @20 20,50 9.75 3.84 26 25 a20 20.50

9.75 3.81 26 25 a20 120.50

24 @20 20.00

25 a20 20.00

25 a20 (20.00

Summarized view of distribution of time in lycée course leading to baccalaureate of letters (classes sixième through rhetoric).

It should be noted that the number of class hours in 1865 was in reality greater than appears from the above table. For the sixth and fifth classes (sixième and cinquième) the total was 28 hours, 2 hours being assigned in each to music and 2 to gymnastics. For the fourth and third classes (quatrième and troisième) the total was 27 hours, 2 hours being assigned in each of these classes to gymnastics. The proportional amount of time given to the branches of study is not affected by these exercises, while the table is simplified by their omission. The removal of gymnastics from class time is not because physical exercises are less esteemed than formerly; they are provided for in extra class hours, which arrangement accords with the better conceptions that now prevail as to the place and bearing of this part of training. Religion was omitted from the class time in the programmes of 1880.1 Drawing assigned to hours out of class in 1885 was restored to its old position in 1890. The efforts at reducing the number of class hours are all prompted by the stand made against overpressure, which it is generally admitted has become a great evik The table shows plainly the tenacity of the old conception of liberal education. Latin, Greek, and French declined slightly in 1880 in favor of history, geography, and sciences. The tendency since that year has been to increase the time devoted to the former subjects, at the expense, however, of modern languages and of science rather than of history.

In the upper classes-third through rhetoric-French has gained relatively. Greek has larger recognition in the programme of 1890

than that of 1880.

As regards the treatment of studies, the most important modification in the work of the lycées accomplished by the new regulations pertains to methods rather than to subjects. Some indication of the changes in this respect is made in the published scheme of study which is given in full, pages 120-124, exercises added or substituted since 1885 being marked by stars. Language is still the chief subject in the course, but

1 By a decree of December 24, 1881, issued at the instance of M. Paul Bert, then minister of public instruction and worship, it was ordered that this matter should be regulated in accordance with the wishes of parents. Clergy of all denominations are consequently admitted to the lycées, with the privilege of giving religious instruction outside of class hours.

the native tongue and modern languages receive the same careful elaboration as Latin. Drill in vocabularies is made a more prominent feature than formerly. The oral and written exercises are more definite and varied, the grammatical part proceeds more gradually. In Latin the written exercises are diminished slightly and the amount of required reading increased.

Geography is somewhat extended, more attention being given to the geography of America, and that of France pursued more in detail. The ground covered in history remains about the same, although the time devoted to the subject is reduced. The same is true for the sciences, in which category mathematics is included. In both cases it is supposed that the course can be completed in the shorter time by the use of better pedagogical methods.

As to the elementary division of the lycée, which, as stated, is not comprised in the table, two changes since 1865 deserve attention, viz, a reduction in the number of hours and the removal of Latin, which then appeared in the eighth or first preparatory class. The time thus gained has been given to French.

The class of philosophy occupies a peculiar position in the lycée; under the old programmes it followed the first examination (held before the facultés) for the degree of bachelor of letters. The endeavor is made to give its studies the university character, and many prominent men have advocated its removal to the facultés, but as the change would involve also complete separation of the bachelor's diploma from the lycée course, it can not be accomplished at present. It would be difficult to convey an idea of the modifications in the course of the class of philosophy without going more into detail than is possible here. The distribution of time in this class at the dates selected for comparison was as follows:

a Some hours are reserved for special conferences or lessons; of these twelve are given during the year to hygiene.

Change in the baccalaureate.—As the bachelor's degree is the goal of the lycée, the changes in this respect are of greater significance than the remodeled programmes. It will be remembered that the plan of Minister Duruy showed a bifurcated course after troisième.' It was

See plan, p. 110.

possible for students to enter the scientific division without having passed through any portion of the classical course; they might enter the class of preparatory mathematics from the special secondary course or from other institutions upon examination. In a year they passed into elementary mathematics, there mingling with students from both troisième and scconde. This in itself is an irregularity hateful to the French mind. The studies of the scientific classes were determined entirely by the admission requirements of higher technical schools; hence in the judgment of those who advocated science on its merits "the programmes of bifurcation systematically stripped the scientific course of an elevated and philosophical character." Nor did the expedient answer well the purposes for which it was adopted-the professors of the higher schools complained that the students from the mathematical course could not hold their own with those who had finished the course in letters. To complete the anomaly, the science course had also its baccalaureate; this excited all the classicists. The situation was aggravated by the fact that the degree of bachelor of science required one year less of work and but one examination.

Since the diploma carried prestige, the course of science drew students away from that of letters. Between 1865 and 1867 the enrollment of the former more than doubled both in the lycées and in the communal colleges, which include the superior classes. Moreover, the ratio of students in the scientific course to the total in the superior division increased. For example, in the lycées it was 29.6 per cent in 1865, 37.3 per cent in 1876, and 39 in 1887. Here was undoubtedly a prime cause of opposition to the course. It is not surprising that the commission should have pronounced the doom of this bifurcation, which had not the value of a parallel course nor the completeness of a single course. For the three bachelors' degrees1 there was substituted by the decree of August 8 a single bachelor's degree. This requires two examinations; the first following the class of rhetoric; the second, a year later, following the class of philosophy. All students must pursue the same course to the end of rhetoric. In the following year, i. e., philosophy, a trifurcation takes place, and the candidate may choose one of the three branches. According to that choice, he who successfully passes the final examination will have his diploma inscribed: "Lettres, philosophie;" "lettres, mathématiques;" or "lettres, sciences physiques et naturelles,” as the case may be.

This change viewed in one way appears to be the victory of the literary over the scientific side, while viewed in another it indicates the determination to make the intrinsic value of the scientific course equal to that of the classical.

The examinations are passed as heretofore, not before the professors of the lycées but before the State facultés, i. e., professional bodies who have had nothing at all to do with the instruction of the candidates. This policy is opposed in many quarters for reasons which can not

1 As explained, p. 110, note 4. There were two grades of the degree of bachelor of science.