Chamber were applied to the trying of causes on the simple information of the King's attorney, and the court was authorized to adjudge any punishment short of death. Under its jurisdiction enormous fines were levied for the most trifling offences. A simple brawl between two wealthy lords had to be atoned for by the payment of £5,000, and more than twice that sum was exacted of a gentleman as a fine for contracting marriage with his niece. Monopolies, which had been formally abandoned both by Elizabeth and by James, were now revived in direct and open violation of the Petition of Right, in order that large sums might be realized from the persons receiving the privileges bestowed by the concession. Nearly every article of domestic necessity had to be procured directly or indirectly from some monopolist; and, consequently, the expense of living was very greatly increased. Customs duties were had been voted by

levied just as if they

Parliament, and after a time writs were issued for a general levy of benevolences from the

shires. Thus, one by one, even the most flagrant of the abuses he had promised to abolish, were resorted to without hesitation and without scruple.

Not less flagrant were the abuses of a religious nature. The Commons, in the last moments of the session of 1629, had resolved that "whoever should bring in innovations in religion," as well as "whoever advised the levy of subsidies not granted in Parliament,” was to be regarded as "a capital enemy of the kingdom and commonwealth." And yet it was to "bring in innovations in religion" that the energies of the English church were now chiefly directed. At the head of the church was Archbishop Laud, whose determination was "to raise the Church of England to what he conceived to be its real position as a branch, though a reformed branch, of the great Catholic church throughout the world." He protested alike against the innovations of Rome and the innovations of Calvin. In his view the Episcopal succession. was the essence of the church; and, therefore,