T is, of course, not our intention here to describe the remarkable intellectual movement which resulted in "the revival of learning, and led ultimately to the Reformation. Briefly, it may be remarked that its effects seemed as if one confined in a dungeon was let out to the light of day. The infinite glory of the memories of past intellectual grandeur was only exceeded by the splendour of the dawn with which it seemed as if the horizon were red. The finest races of the world awoke from their sleep, and marched forward in the path of intellectual progress. The universities were the direct consequences of that awaking. True, indeed, many of them were of an earlier date; but the new life which the awakening of learning gave them, actually re-created them.

Mr. Burton has so eloquently and truly described the great and noble idea of the university, that we cannot refrain from quoting his words: "It may with truth be said that, in the history of human things, there is to be found no grander conception than that of the Church of the fifteenth century, when it resolved in the shape of the universities to cast the light of knowledge abroad all over the Christian world. The skill and energy brought to its completion were worthy of the greatness of the design. The universities called on all the ardent spirits of the age to come and drink their fill at the great fountains of knowledge. Everything about the universities was on a scale of liberality, learning, and good taste, sufficient to adjust them to the habits of the aristocracy. Yet the poorest and humblest among the people, the children of craftsmen and of serfs, were tempted to resort to them and partake of their munificence, on condition of earnestly embracing the

To make the reciprocity perfect a head was necessary, and that was found in the court of Rome. The Pope's Bull was the conclusive writ establishing the university, and that franked it as a member of the university-system stretched over the Christian world."

These middle-age universities, then, were all to a certain extent similar; the ground-work of all was the same. As three of these establishments in Scotland-those of St. Andrew's, Glasgow, and Aberdeen-were established on that plan, it may be as well to say a few words as to the typical form which will apply to all three, and save needless repetition.

The Ancient University was a Corporation, of course clearly connected with the Church, since it was founded and, indeed, principally supported by ecclesiastical policy. Its highest office was that of the Chancellor, who was considered as the fountain of honour, and who alone had the power of conferring degrees. He was either the bishop of the diocese or was appointed by him.

The Rector was, however, the person of most importance in university management. Though not nominally, he was in reality the head of the University. He presided over its various meetings, and was chosen sometimes by the "nations" into which the members of the university were divided, and sometimes nominated by some ecclesiastical or university authority. The students in most of the universities, as has been well

remarked, might be divided in a threefold manner. The division might be according to nationality (or according to the part of the country in which the university was situated from which they came). We have already noticed this in speaking of the English "Nation" at the University of Paris. Then there was a division according to the subjects taught this was into the Faculties of Theology, Canon and Civil Law, Medicine, and Arts. Each Faculty managed to a considerable extent its own affairs, and was presided over by its own Dean. The third division was into teachers and taught; and each one who was taught was allowed or even required to teach in his turn.

In universities were often founded colleges by the beneficence of private individuals or of Government. These also managed their own affairs; each was an imperium in imperio.

Lastly, it may be noticed that each university possessed judicial powers, sometimes even of life and death, and that many immunities and privileges were granted to the members of it. We give with this article pictures from one of the most famous and most ancient of all the universities-that of Oxford. This great seat of learning is said to owe its origin to Alfred the Great. The splendour of its buildings, its historical memories, and the names of many famous men there educated, render it an object of the profoundest interest to all men of culture

of our common people have gone home, that few are left with us but the prime of our nobility." He therefore gave it as his advice, that the king should withdraw from the army, for safety of his person, and that some brave nobleman should be named by the council, to command in the action. The council agreed to recommend this plan to the king.

But James, who desired to gain fame by his own military skill and prowess, suddenly broke in on the council, and told them, with much heat, that they should not put such a disgrace upon him. "I will fight with the English," he said, "though you had all sworn the contrary. You may shame yourselves by flight, but you shall not shame me; and as for Lord Patrick Lindsay, who has got the first vote, I vow, that when I return to Scotland, I will cause him to be hanged over his own gate."

In this rash and precipitate resolution to fight at all risks, the king was much supported by the French ambassador, De la Motte. This was remarked by the Earl of Angus, called Bell-the-Cat, who, though very old, had come out to the field with his sovereign. He charged the Frenchman with being willing to sacrifice the interests of Scotland to those of his own country, which required that the Scots and English should fight at all hazards. This caused a quarrel, which made Angus withdraw from the camp, but his two sons remained, and fell in the fatal battle with two hundred of the name of Douglas.

The Scottish army had fixed its camp upon the hill of Flodden, which rises to close in, as it were, the extensive flat called Millfield plain. From this strong position the English wished to dislodge them. Surrey, therefore, placed his forces between Scotland and the position of the Scotch army. James thought it was the intention of the English to move northward. Stimulated by this apprehension, the king resolved to give signal for the fatal battle.

With this view the Scots set fire to their huts, and the other refuse and litter of their camp. The smoke spread along the side of the hill, and under its cover the army of king James descended the eminence, which is much less steep on the northern than the southern side, while the English advanced to meet them, both concealed from each other by the clouds of smoke.

The Scots descended in four strong columns, all marching parallel to each other, having a reserve of the Lothian men commanded by Earl Bothwell. The English were also divided into four bodies, with a reserve of cavalry led by Dacre.

The first which encountered was the left wing of the Scots, commanded by the Earl of Huntly and Lord Home, which overpowered and threw into disorder the right wing of the English, under Sir Edmund Howard. Sir Edmund was beaten down, his standard taken, and he himself in danger of instant death, when he was relieved by the Bastard Heron, who came up at the head of a band of determined outlaws like himself, and extricated Howard. It is objected to the Lord Home by many Scottish writers, that he ought to have improved his advantage, by hastening to the support of the next division of the Scottish army. It is even pretended, that he replied to those who urged him to go to the assistance of the king, that "the man did well that day who stood and saved himself." But this seems invented, partly to criminate Home, and partly to account for the loss of the battle in some other way than by the superiority of the English. reality, the English cavalry, under Dacre, which acted as a reserve, appear to have kept the victors in check; while Thomas Howard, the lord high admiral, who commanded the second division of the English, bore down, and routed the Scottish division commanded by Crawford and Montrose, who were both slain.