founder of the Lawrence Asylum, for the reception of the children of the European soldiers in India. A monument to his memory has been placed in St Paul's Cathedral.

LAW-TERMS. The usual law-terms in England and Ireland mean those periods of the year during which the law-courts sit in bane or in full court to dispose of business. These are of ancient origin, and are new fixed by statute as follows: Hilary term begins January 11, ends 31st January; Easter term begins April 15, ends 8th May; Trinity term begins May 22, en is 12th June; Michaelmas term begins November 2 ends 25th November. Though the courts always sit at those periods, yet they have a power of appointing sittings after term also, which power is always exercised for the despatch of arrears of business. And the judges also practically sit nearly all the year round, disposing of business of one kind or another, except in the long vacation, which extends from 10th August to 24th October. But even during that period also, one or more judges atten i to perform incidental business; and it is only for some purposes, and for some kinds of business, that the long vacation acts as a suspension of hostilities.

In Scotland, the law-terms are differently arranged.

The Court of Session sits from 12th November to 20th March, and from 12th May to 20th July. But there also the judges are employed in other business during the intervals.

As to the quarter-days usual between landlord and tenant, see LANDLORD AND TENANT.

LAWYER, in the United Kingdom, is not a technical term of law, but a popular name given to those who are either practitioners of the law or intimately connected with its administration. In Great Britain and Ireland, lawyers are subdivided into two classes. See ATTORNEYS AND SOLICITORS, BARRISTERS, ADVOCATES. In the United States of America, an attorney acts as counsel, and vice tex, there being no similar subdivision of the profession, and the expediency of the subdivision has often been canvassed in the United Kingdom of late years.

LAYARD, AUSTEN HENRY, English traveller and politician, was born at Paris in 1817. He was destined for the law, but finding the profession little congenial to his tastes, he set out on a course of eastern travel, visited several districts of Asiatic Turkey, and became familiar with the manners and dialects of Persia and Arabia. On his first journey along the banks of the Tigris, in 1840, he was struck with the ruins at Nimrud-a village near the junction of the Tigris and the Zab, pointed out by local tradition as the site of the original city of Nineveh-and felt an irresistible desire to examine the remains of the birthplace of the wisdom of the west.' In 1842, M. Botta, the French consul at Mosul, conducted some extensive excavations at that place, and L. returning to the region, again directed his attention to Nimrud. It was 1845 before he could obtain the requisite means and facilities for his search, and he then, with the help of some Arabs, began secretly to dig in the mound supposed to contain the ruins. He soon came upon some sculptured remains, and became convinced that he had touched a rich vein of archæological treasure. His excavations were resumed in 1846 and 1847, and his energy and perseverance were rewarded by the discovery of the ground remains of four distinct palatial edifices. The walls had been lined with large slabs of gypsum or alabaster, covered with bas-reliefs and cuneiform inscriptions. Many of these were sent to England by L, together with gigantic-winged human-headed

bulls and lions, and eagle-headed deities. They were placed in the British Museum, of which they have since remained the chief attraction. L. at first conducted his search at his own expense; he was, in 1845, liberally assisted by Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, then British ambassador in Constantinople; and eventually, as the value of these specimens of Assyrian art began to be known, the House of Commons voted a sum of £3000, which was applied by the trustees of the British Museum, in continuing the excavations under L.'s superintendence. On his return to England, he published a narrative of his explorations, under the title of Nineveh and its Remains, and another work entitled Monuments of Nineveh. He was presented with the freedom of the city of London, received the honour of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford, and was Lord Rector of Aberdeen university in 1855-1856. Having determined to devote himself to a political career, he became, in 1852, M.P. for Aylesbury, but lost his seat in 1857. He visited the Crimea during the In 1860, he again entered the House of Commons Russian war, and went to India after the mutiny. In 1861, he was as member for Southwark. appointed Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in the Palmerston government. This post he continues (1863) to fill.

Any

LAYING, or LAYERING, a mode of propagating trees, shrubs, and perennial herbaceous plants, which is very frequently employed by gardeners and nurserymen. It consists in bending and fastening a branch, so that a portion of it is imbedded in earth, there to throw out roots, the extremity being made to grow erect in order to form a new plant. The separation from the parent plant is not effected till the layer is sufficiently provided with roots. injury which prevents the free return of the sap greatly promotes the formation of roots, and a notch is therefore usually made in one side of the branch, at the place where the formation of roots is desired; it is also often a little split up from the notch; and sometimes a ring of bark is cut off, or a wire is twisted round it. The time which must elapse before the layer should be separated from the sufficient for some, and two years requisite for parent plant is very various; a few months being others. Many plants which can be propagated by cuttings are more easily and successfully propagated by layers.

LAʼZULITE, or AZURITE, a mineral long confounded with Lapis Lazuli (q. v.), but although somewhat similar in colour, very different in composition; consisting chiefly of phosphoric acid and alumina, with magnesia and protoxide of iron. It occurs imbedded in quartz, or in fissures in clayslate, in Styria, North Carolina, Brazil, &c.

LAZZARO'NI, a name said to be derived from that of Lazarus in the parable, and, until lately, designating a particular class of the inhabitants of Naples. They had no fixed habitations, regular occupation, or secure means of subsistence, but occasionally obtained employment as messengers, porters, boatmen, itinerant vendors of food, &c. They have performed an important part in all the revolutions and movements in Naples for a long period, and in recent times have allied themselves to the cause of despotism. They were wont annually to elect a chief (Capo Lazzaro), who was formally recognised by the Neapolitan government, and who exercised an extraordinary power over them. Of late, they have lost many of their peculiarities, have come more within the pale of civilisation, and, in fact, are no longer recognised as a separate class, though the name is still given to the boatmen and fishermen of the city, who are really

LE, the capital of Ladakh, or Middle Tibet, on the right bank of the Upper Indus, in lat. 34° 10' N., and long. 77° 40′ E., at an elevation of more than 10,000 feet above the sea. The population is about 4000. The place is a main entrepôt between Chinese Tartary and the Punjab, being more especially the grand mart for the famous shawl-wool of Tibet.

LEAD, THE, used on shipboard, for ascertaining the depth of water, consists of a piece of lead shaped like an elongated clock-weight, attached to a line of about 20 fathoms. The lower part of the lead is scooped out, and filled with tallow, that portions of the bottom may adhere. The deep-sea lead weighs from 25 to 30 lbs., and is attached to a line of far greater length.

LEAD (symb. Pb., equiv. 1037, spec. grav. 114) is a bluish-white metal of considerable brilliancy, which soon disappears on exposure to the air, owing to the formation of a thin film of oxide. It is so soft that it may be readily cut with a knife, or may be made to take impressions, and it leaves a streak upon paper. It may be cut or beaten into thin sheets, but in ductility and tenacity it is low in the scale of metals. It is readily fusible at a temperature of about 625°, and at a higher temperature it absorbs oxygen rapidly from the air, and the oxide thus formed volatilises in the form of white fumes.

The combined action of air and water on lead is a subject of great practical importance, in consequence of the metal being so frequently employed in the construction of cisterns and water-pipes. The lead becomes oxidised at the surface, and the water dissolves the oxide; this solution absorbs the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, a film of hydrated oxycarbonate of lead (PbO,HO+PbO,CO2) is deposited in silky scales, and a fresh portion of oxide of lead is formed and dissolved, and in this way a rapid corrosion of the metal ensues. This action is materially increased by the presence of some salts, and diminished by the presence of other salts in the water. It is much increased by the occurrence of chlorides (which, as chloride of sodium, is often present in spring water), and of nitrates and nitrites (which are often present in spring and river waters, from the decomposition of organic matter); while it is diminished by the sulphates, phosphates, and carbonates, and especially by carbonate of lime, which is an extremely common impurity in spring water. In the latter case, a film of insoluble carbonate of lead is rapidly formed on the surface, and the metal beneath is thus protected from the action of the water. If, however, the water contain much carbonic acid, the carbonate of lead may be dissolved, and considering the dangers that arise from the use of water impregnated with lead, cisterns constructed of slate are far preferable to leaden ones.

Pure lead is of very rare occurrence. Almost all the lead of commerce is obtained from Galena, the native sulphide of lead by a process to be presently explained. The lead thus obtained is often nearly pure, and to obtain it perfectly pure, it should be reduced with black flux from the oxide left by igniting the pure nitrate or carbonate.

The compounds of lead with oxygen are four in number-viz., a sub-oxide, Ph2O, which is a black powder of no importance; a protoxide, PbO, which is the base of the ordinary salts of the metal; a binoxide, Pb0,; and red lead, which is a compound of the two last-named oxides, and is usually represented by the formula 2PbO,PbO2. The protoxide is commonly known as Litharge. It is

in a current of air, when it forms a scaly mass of a yellow or reddish tint. If the oxidation be effected at a temperature below that required for the fusion of oxide, a yellow powder, termed Massicot, is obtained. Litharge is much used by the assayer (see ASSAY) as a flux; it enters largely into the composition of the glaze of common earthenware, and it is employed in pharmacy in the preparation of plasters. A mixture of 1 part of massicot with 10 of brickdust, made into a paste with linseed-oil, forms the compound known as Dhil mastic, which, from the hardness with which it sets, is frequently employed to repair defects in stone-facings.

The most important of the salts of the protoxide of lead are-1. The carbonate (PbO,CO2), which occurs native as a beautiful mineral in transparent needles or fibrous masses, and which is prepared under the name of white lead on a large scale as a pigment by a process to be subsequently described. The carbonate is insoluble in water, unless it is largely charged with carbonic acid. It is quickly blackened by exposure to hydrosulphuric acid (sulphuretted hydrogen), either in the form of gas or in solution, and this is a serious drawback to the use of the lead salts as pigments. 2. The sulphate (PbO,SO,), which occurs native in white prismatic crystals, and is formed as a heavy white precipitate on adding sulphuric acid or a soluble sulphate to a soluble lead salt. 3. The nitrate (PLO,NO), which is formed by dissolving lead or its protoxide in dilute nitric acid. 4. The chromates, of which the principal are the neutral chromate or chrome yellow (PbO,CrO3), and the dichromate or orange chrome. These are much used as pigments, and in calico-dyeing. 5. The acetates. The ordinary or neutral acetate (PbO,CH,0 + 3aq.) is prepared on a large scale by the solution of litharge in distilled vinegar, and evaporation, when the salt is obtained in four-sided prisms, or more commonly in a mass of confused minute white crystals, which at 212 lose their water of crystallisation. From its appearance, and from its sweetish taste, it derives its common name of sugar of lead. It is much used both in medicine and in the arts. Basic acetate of lead, regarded by some chemists as a diacetate, and by others as a triacetate, and commonly known as Goulard's Extract, is prepared by boiling a solution of sugar of lead with litharge, and adding alcohol, when the salt separates in minute transparent needles. It is the active ingredient of Goulard Water, which is imitated by the Liquor Plumbi Diacetatis Dilutus, and of Goulard's Cerate, which is imitated by the Ceratum Plumbi Compositum of the London Pharmacopoeia.

3

The best tests for solutions of the salts of lead are the formation of a black sulphide with hydrosulphuric acid or hydrosulphate of ammonia, insoluble in an excess of the reagent; of a white insoluble sulphate with sulphuric acid, or a soluble sulphate; of a yellow chromate with chromate of potash; and a yellow iodide with iodide of potassium. All the salts of lead, insoluble in water, are soluble in a solution of potash. Before the blow-pipe on charcoal, the salts of lead yield a soft white bead of the metal, surrounded by a yellow ring of oxide.

Its use in Medicine.-The most important compound of lead in the materia medica is the acetate of lead, which is administered internally as an astringent and as a sedative. It is of service as an astringent, especially in combination with opium, in cases of mild English cholera, and even of Asiatic cholera, and in various forms of diarrhoea. It will frequently check the purulent expectoration in

phthisis, and the profuse secretion in bronchitis. In the various forms of hæmorrhage-as from the lungs, stomach, bowels, or womb-it is employed partly with the view of diminishing the diameter of the bleeding vessels, and partly with the object of lowering the heart's action, and by these means to stop the bleeding. The ordinary dose is two or three grains, with half a grain of opium, in the form of a pill, repeated twice or thrice daily. If given for too long a time, symptoms of Lead-poisoning (q. v.) will arise.

Mining, Smelting, &c.-Lead was largely worked by the Romans in Great Britain, and pigs with Latin inscriptions have been frequently found near old smelting-works. The mining of lead in England was formerly regulated by curious laws; some places, such as the King's Field, in Derbyshire, having special privileges. It was the custom in this district not to allow the ore to leave the mine till it was measured in the presence of an official called a bar-master, who set aside a 25th part as the king's cope or lot. Up to a comparatively recent period, persons were allowed to search for veins of the ore without being liable for any damage done to the soil or crops.

Lead ore is pretty generally distributed, but by far the largest supply of this metal is obtained from Great Britain and Spain, the former country yielding some 65,000 tons per annum, and the latter probably an equal supply. Nearly a fourth of the total British produce is procured from the Northumberland and Durham district, where there exists, at Allenheads, one of the largest mining establishments in the world. Scotland and Ireland furnish only a very small quantity.

With the exception of a little from the carbonate of lead, all the supplies of this metal are obtained from the sulphuret of lead or Galena (q. v.). The lead ore, when taken from the mine, is broken up into small pieces, hotched,' and washed, to separate impurities, by means of apparatus described under METALLURGY. Sulphuret of lead, when tolerably pure, is smelted with comparative ease. It is first roasted in a reverberatory furnace, such as is shewn in the figures 1 and 2. From

c

d

lead, combine to form sulphureous acid gas (SO,), which passes off as waste, and metallic lead remains in the bottom of the furnace, and is run off at the tap-hole, g.

In some districts, the roasted ore is smelted on a separate ore-hearth called the Scotch furnace. It somewhat resembles a smith's forge, and like it, has the heat urged by bellows. Peat and coal are used as the fuel. This is a slower mode of smelting than by the reverberatory furnace, but yields a purer lead.

During the operation of smelting, a considerable quantity of lead is volatilised, and carried off as fume or smoke, which, when allowed to escape into

the atmosphere, is not only so much lead lost, but destroys all vegetation for some distance around the works, and poisons cattle and other animals feeding near them. Of late years, a mode of obviating these evils has been partially introduced-it consists in leading the smoke from the several furnaces into one large flue, which is conducted to an exhausting chamber. The smoke passes in a zig-zag manner through the vacuum chamber, in the interior of which a stream of water, sufficient to condense the lead and other matters suspended in the vapours, is kept flowing. About 33 per cent. of the fume thus recovered consists of metallic lead.

When lead contains antimony and tin as impurities, they are separated by fusing the metal in shallow pans, and allowing it to oxidise at the surface. In this way, the antimony and tin form oxides, and as such are skimmed off. Lead reduced from galena always contains a little silver, of which 8 or

Fig. 1.-Section of a Reverberatory Lead Furnace.

20 to 40 cwts. of galena are put into the furnace at a time, either with or without lime. In about two hours, the charge becomes sufficiently roasted. During the process, the larger portion of the ore (PbS) takes up four equivalents of oxygen, and becomes sulphate of lead (PbO,SO), a little oxide of lead (PbO) is also formed, while another portion remains unaltered as sulphuret of lead. After it is roasted, the ore is thoroughly mixed together, and the heat of the furnace suddenly raised. The result is, that the sulphur and oxygen of the sulphate, and the sulphur of the sulphuret of

Fig. 3.-Desilverising Pot: a, pot; b, fireplace; c, main flue.

10 ounces to the ton is a very common proportion, although it often exists in much larger quantity. The separation of this silver is now greatly facilitated by means of a desilverising process patented by the

means an insoluble sulphate of lead is formed, which is eliminated by the purgative action of the excess of sulphate of magnesia. Iodide of potassum is then administered, which acts by dissolving the lead out of the tissues, and allowing it to be removed by the urine.

The palsy may be specially treated, after the elimination of the lead, by electricity, and by strychnine in minute doses.

Persons exposed from their occupation to the risk of lead-poisoning should be especially attentive to cleanliness; and if they combine the frequent application of the warm bath with the use of sulphuric lemonade or treacle beer acidulated with sulphuric acid, as a drink, they may escape the effects of the metallic poison.

LEADER, the name given to the performer in an orchestra who plays the principal first-violin.

LEADING NOTE (Fr. note sensible), in Music, is usually understood to mean the sharp seventh of the diatonic scale, or the semitone below the octave, to which it leads. The most of the German theorists have now relinquished the term leading note, as every note, when it is felt that another immediately above or below it should follow, may be said to be a leading note.

LEADING QUESTION is a technical expression in Law to denote a question so put to a witness as to suggest the answer that is desired or expected. Thus, if a witness is asked: Was he dressed in a black coat?' it is supposed the witness will answer, yes; whereas the proper way of putting the question is: How was he dressed?' or, What kind of coat?' &c. The rule established in courts of justice as to the correct practice in such matters, is, that when a witness is examined in chief, i. e., by the party who adduces such witness, leading questions are not allowed, except in one or two rare cases; whereas, when the witness is cross-examined, i. e., by the opposing party, leading questions may be put; for the object is to make the witness contradict and stultify himself, so that the jury will disbelieve him. The above rule, however, only applies to material questions, for in immaterial questions leading questions may be put, so as to save time.

LEAF-CUTTER BEE, a name given to certain species of solitary bees (see BEE) of the genera Megachile and Osmia, in consequence of their habit of lining their nests with portions of leaves, or of the petals of flowers, which they cut out for this purpose with the mandibles. Megachile centuncularis, a common British species, uses the leaves-not the petals-of roses, fitting the pieces together so as to form one thimble-shaped cell within another, in a long cylindrical burrow, the bottom of each cell containing an egg and a little pollen paste. The structure of these nests is very nice and curious.

LEAF-INSECT, or WALKING-LEAF (Phyl

These

tropical countries, having wings extremely like leaves, not only in colour, but in the way in which they are ribbed and veined. The joints of the legs are also expanded in a leaf-like manner. insects spend their lives among leaves, move slowly, and would be much exposed to every enemy, did not their leaf-like appearance preserve them from observation.

length of great antiquity. It was used by the LEAGUE (from the Lat. leuca), a measure of Romans, who derived it from the Gauls, and estimated it as equivalent to 1500 Roman paces, or 1:376 modern English miles. The league was introduced into England by the Normans, probably before the battle of Hastings (1066), and had been by this time lengthened to 2 English miles of that time, or 2 modern English miles. At the present day, the league is a nautical measure, and signifies the 20th part of a degree-i. e., 3 geographical miles, or 3456 statute miles. The French and other nations use the same nautical league, but the former nation two land-measures of the same name, the legal had (until the introduction of the metrical system) of 25 to the degree, which is = posting-league 2:42 Eng. miles, and the league 2.76 statute English

miles.

=

LEAGUE, the term generally employed in the 16th and 17th centuries to designate a political alliance or coalition. The most famous leagues were those of Cambray, Schmalkald, Nürnberg, &c. But the name has a peculiar importance in the history of France, as applied to the opposition organised by the Duke of Guise (q. v.) to the granting of the free exercise of their religion and political rights to the Huguenots. This league, known as the Holy League (Sainte Ligue), was formed at Péronne, in 1576, for the maintenance of the Roman Catholic religion in its predominance; but the object of the Guises was rather to exclude the Protestant princes of the blood from the succession to the throne. For an account of the civil war that ensued, see HENRY III., HENRY IV., and GUISE.-See Mignet, Histoire de la Ligue (5 vols. Par. 1829).

LEAKE, WILLIAM MARTIN, a lieutenant-colonel in the British army, and a traveller who has contributed much to our knowledge of the ancient and He was born in 1777, and died January 6, 1860. modern geography, history, and antiquities of Greece. With remarkable critical acuteness and soundness admirable power of clear statement. His principal of judgment, he combined great learning and an works, containing the matured fruit of his observations and studies, are-Researches in Greece, &c. (1814); The Topography of Athens, &c. (1821); Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor, with Comparative Remarks on the Ancient and Modern Geography of that Country (1824); Travels in the Morea (1830); Travels in Northern Greece (1835); and Numismatica Hellenica (1854).

In the

Leaf-Insect.