MONIMIACEE-MONITORIAL SYSTEM.

MONIMIA'CEE, a natural order of exogenous plants, consisting of trees and shrubs, with opposite leaves destitute of stipules; the bark and leaves having an aromatic fragrance. The flowers are unisexual. The perianth is somewhat globose, divided at the border sometimes into more rows than one. The stamens are numerous, and arise from and cover the whole interior of the tube of the perianth. There are several ovaries, each with one ovule. The fruit consists of several achænia, enclosed within the enlarged calyx. There are about 40 known species, natives chiefly of South America. A few are found in New Zealand and Australia. The fruit of the BOLDU (Boldoa fragrans), a shrub or small tree, a native of Chili, is eaten. It is a little drupe, about the size of a currant, extremely fragrant when dried.

MONITEUR, LE, a celebrated French journal, started by the publisher, Charles Joseph Panckoucke, 5th May 1789, under the title of the Gazette Nationale, ou le Moniteur Universel. After the crisis of the 10th August 1792, its importance as a daily register of the events which occurred during the dark days of the Revolution, immensely increased. Whoever wishes to obtain a complete view of the phenomena of the Reign of Terror, should consult Thuan-Grandville's Gazette Nationale, ou le Moniteur Universel, commencé le 5th Mai 1789, précédé d'une Introduction historique contenant un Abrégé des anciens Etats-généraux, des Assemblées des Notables, et des principaux Evénements qui ont amené la Révolution (1796). In 1800, it altered its form so far as to divide itself into two halves, of which the first contained the Actes du Gouvernement. This change imparted to the journal something of an official character. After January 1, 1811, it dropped the title of Gazette Nationale, retaining only that of Moniteur Universel. After the Restoration, it became the government organ, which it continued to be under Louis Philippe, and still is under Louis Napoléon.

MONITOR, a name given to many species of saurian reptiles, nearly allied to the true lizards, from which they differ in having no teeth on the

gray,

There are several genera of both.-The M. or VARAN OF THE NILE (M. Niloticus) is of a rather slender form, and has a long tail. It is olive mottled with black. It attains a length of five or six feet. Crocodiles' eggs form part of its food. The TEGUEXIN (Teius Teguexin) of Brazil and Guiana is of similar size. It preys on aquatic animals. Other large species are plentiful in almost all tropical countries. They are powerful animals, have strong teeth, and defend themselves vigorously if attacked. Some comparatively small species, feeding chiefly on insects, are found in dry situations. Some of the large South American species are used for food, and their flesh is said to be excellent.

MONITORIAL SYSTEM, or MUTUAL INSTRUCTION. It first occurred to Dr Bell (q. v.), when superintendent of the Orphan Hospital, Madras, in 1795, to make use of the more advanced boys in the school to instruct the younger pupils. These youthful teachers were called Monitors. The method was eagerly adopted by Joseph Lancaster (q. v.) who, in the first years of this century, did so much for the extension of popular education; and from him and the originator, the system was called indifferently the Madras and the Lancastrian, as well as the Monitorial or Mutual System. The monitorial system is not, as is commonly supposed, a method of teaching; it is simply a method of organising schools, and of providing the necessary At a time when the whole teaching power. question of primary education was in its infancy, the state refusing to promote it on the ground that it was dangerous to society, and the public little disposed to contribute towards its extension, it was of great importance that a system should be adopted which should recommend itself as at once It was manifest that effectual and economical. even with the most skilful arrangement of classes, a single teacher could not undertake the tuition of more than 80 or 90 pupils; while, by the judicious employment of the cleverer boys under the general direction of the master, the school might be made almost self-working, and 300 or 400 children taught where there was only one adult superintendent. The novelty and economy of this plan, and we may add also, its temporary success, gained for it a large and enthusiastic support both in Britain and in Germany. But the importance of the system as an educational agency was universally over-rated, for although it is to be admitted that, under an able and enthusiastic master, boys may be inspired to teach well all technical and rote subjects (as, for example, in the Latia and Greek classes under Dr Pillans of the Edinburgh High School), yet it is manifest that children so instructed are not in any sense of the word educated. Their monitor necessarily lacks the maturity of mind which is indispensable to the instructor, whose business it is to arouse in the child those mental operations which have taken place within himself, and so lead him to an intelligent and rational grasp of intellectual and moral and physical truths. No amount of private instruction from the master, no enthusiasm could ever enable a boy to do this, and consequently the system broke down, after having done its work palate. Among them are some of large size, the by being the engine whereby a large interest was largest of existing saurians except those of the stirred up in the education of the masses, and crocodile tribe. The tail of the greater number is whereby the requisites of a primary teacher were laterally compressed, the better to adapt them to brought into view. The reaction against the aquatic habits. They receive the name M. from a system, however, was not so violent in Great Britain notion that they give warning by a hissing sound or in Holland and France, as in Germany. of the approach of a crocodile or alligator. For the England, the monitorial system was modified in same reason, some of the American species receive such a way as to secure for the master the aid the French name Sauvegarde. Those of the Old World form the family Monitoride, and those of America the family Teide of some naturalists.

In

of the more clever boys in teaching rote subjects, in revising lessons, keeping registers, and supervis ing the work of those classes not directly under

531

MONK-MONKEY.

land. He died 3d January 1670. Guizot describes him as a man capable of great things, though he had no greatness of soul.' See Guizot's Monk, Chute de la Republique, Skinner's Life of Monk, Hallam's Constitutional History, and Macaulay's History of England.

MONKEY (Simia), a Linnæan genus of Mammalia, of the Linnæan order Primates, and of Cuvier's order Quadrumana, now constituting the family Simiada. The word M. was formerly of almost, if not altogether, the same signification with Ape; but the name ape is now more generally applied to those Siminde which have no tail, and no cheek-pouches; the name M. to those which have cheek pouches and long tails, prehensile or not prehensile; whilst the name Baboon (q. v.) is applied to creatures considerably different from both. The smaller tailless Simiada are, however, still not unfrequently spoken of as monkeys, and the term is also sometimes used to comprehend all the Simiada.

the master's tuition. In this way were afforded against the Dutch; and was defeated by Von the means of training for the teaching profession Ruyter in a sea-fight off Dunkirk, but soon after boys who seemed fitted by natural endowment gained a bloody victory over him off North Forefor the work. Hence the prevalent employment in this country of paid monitors and pupil-teachers (male and female), who are regularly apprenticed to school-managers and teachers, and go forward to be trained in the normal schools now so numerous. MONK, GEORGE, Duke of Albemarle, was the son of Sir Thomas Monk of Potheridge, in Devonshire, and was born at his father's residence, 6th December 1608. He spent some of his earlier years in the service of Holland, returned to England when about the age of 30, and served in the king's army against the Scots in 1639, attaining the rank of lieutenant-colonel. On the breaking out of the Irish rebellion, in 1642, he was appointed colonel of Lord Leicester's troops, sent to crush it. When the civil war began, these troops were recalled, and M. was imprisoned on account of being supposed to favour the cause of the Parliament, but was soon after released. In 1644, he was defeated and taken prisoner by Fairfax, and imprisoned in the Tower, from which he was liberated, after two years, on his swearing the Covenant. Clarendon hints that he sold himself for money. He was now intrusted with the command in the north of Ireland. Cromwell had a high opinion of his military talents, and made him his lieutenantgeneral and commandant of artillery; and the service which he rendered at the battle of Dunbar was so great, that he was intrusted with the chief command in Scotland. In 1653, he was joined with Admiral Blake in an expedition against the Dutch, and with his division of the fleet, consisting of 100 ships, defeated Admiral Van Tromp off Nieuwpoort, and fought another battle with him off Katwijk, in which the victory was doubtful, but Van Tromp lost his life. In April 1654, Cromwell sent him to Scotland as governor, in which difficult office he conducted himself with vigour, moderation, and equity. Even the Highlands, those immemorial sanctuaries of plunder,' as Guizot calls them, were reduced to order. His principal residence was Dalkeith, where he spent his leisure hours in gardening, of which he was very fond. When, after Cromwell's death, he saw everything in confusion, and felt his own position perilous, he crossed the English border, 1st January 1660, with 6000 men, united his troops with those which Fairfax had collected for Charles II., and entered London unopposed, although as yet he kept his views profoundly secret. His powers of dissimulation and reticence were immense. Every body felt that the decision lay with Old George,' as his soldiers used to call him; every party courted him; he was even offered the protectorate; but while he offended nobody, he declined to connect himself with any of the sectaries, and waited patiently the course of events. His own wish (though it did not proceed from any very highminded motive) was to bring back the Stuarts; and before long, he saw that the nation in general was thoroughly with him. On the 21st of February he called together the remaining members of the parliament which had been violently driven out twelve years before, and Charles II. was presently recalled. M. was now made Duke of Albemarle, loaded with honours, and intrusted with the highest offices in the state. But he soon retired from political affairs. In 1665, when the plague ravaged London, and every one fled that could, 'Old George,' as governor of the City, bravely stuck to his post, and did what he could to allay the terror and confusion. Next year, he was employed as second in command of the fleet sent under the Duke of York

The

Of all animals, the Simiada exhibit the greatest resemblance to man, both in their general form and their anatomical structure. This is particularly the case with some of the larger apes. In none of them, however, is there a natural adaptation for the erect position so characteristic of man, which is assumed rarely, and in general only by captive individuals, as the result of training and constraint, all of the M. tribe preferring to walk on four feet rather than on two, but all of them being adapted for living chiefly among the branches of trees, or according to the habits of a comparatively small number of species-among bushy cliffs, where they make use of the four extremities for prehension, as hands. Most of them leap from branch to branch with wonderful agility, and some also swing themselves from a branch by their long prehensile tail, till they can seize hold of another branch. thumb, in all the four extremities, is opposable to the fingers, which are long and flexible; but there are some monkeys which want the thumb of the fore-limbs, or have it merely rudimentary, whilst the hind-limbs are always furnished with perfect hands. In attempting to walk erect, an ape necessarily treads, not on the soles, but on the sides of its feet, which are turned inwards, and the muscles of the legs do not enable it to maintain an erect position long or easily. This difficulty is increased by the way in which the head is affixed to the vertebral column, the occipital foramen being further back than in man, so that the weight of the head is thrown forward. The face of a M. exhibits a grotesque resemblance to that of man; but the lower forehead, the less perfect nose, and the more projecting jaws, give it a brutal character. The dentition of monkeys is so similar to that of man, that the dental formula for very many is the same, although many others have an additional molar on each side of each jaw; but in many, the great size of the canine teeth is a marked brutal characteristic. -The digestive organs are generally very similar to those of man, but in some of the Simiada, more exclusively confined to vegetable food, there is a remarkable difference in a peculiar and very complicated structure of the stomach.-The food of monkeys consists chiefly of fruits, corn, and other vegetable substances; but most of them also catch and eat insects, and even birds, of the eggs of which they are also very fond. In captivity, they learn to eat and drink almost everything that is used by man, and shew a great fondness for sweet things, and for alcoholic liquors.-The skin of monkeys is

MONKEY POTS-MONMOUTH.

generally covered in all parts with hair, but some of several converging lines of railway. The surface have the face partially naked, and many have is elevated in the north and north-west (the Sugar naked callosities on the buttocks.-Many have Loaf is 1856 feet high), but the coast-districts, comcapacious cheek pouches, in which they stow away prising the Wentloog and the Caldecot Levels, are food which they cannot consume with sufficient low and flat, and are protected from the wash of the expedition. They are mostly gregarious, although sea by sea-walls and earthworks. See CHEPSTOW. to this there are some exceptions. Many of the In the fertile valleys of the Usk and Wye, wheat species display strong attachment to their mates is the principal crop; but in the less favoured and to their offspring. One or two young are localities, barley and oats chiefly are grown. Coal, generally produced at a birth. They display a limestone, and ironstone abound in the mineral remarkable propensity and talent for imitation; district of M., in the north-west of the county. and this, with their extreme agility, their curious This district, comprising 89,000 acres, abounds in prying disposition, and their love of trick or mischief, collieries and ironworks. makes them very amusing, whether in a wild or a captive state. Many of the stories told of monkeys manifest also a high degree of intelligence, although it may be doubted if the intelligence of any of the species exceeds that of the dog or the elephant. Notwithstanding their resemblance to the human form, their imitative propensity, and their intelligence, none of the monkeys shew the smallest capacity for imitating the human voice; and their chattering' is very unlike articulate speech.

MONOCHORD--MONOGRAM.

MONOGRAPH-MONOMANIA.

the coins of the French kings of the Carlovingian race bear their respective monograms, as also do those of Alfred and some of the other Saxon kings

AX*

of England. Fig. 2 represents that of Charlemagne, a perfect monogram, in which all the letters of

Karolus can be traced.

K&

Painters and engravers in Germany and Italy have used monograms to a large extent as a means of distinguishing their works. In these, the initial letters of their names were often interwoven with figures of a symbolical character, so as to form a rebus on the artist's name. Fig. 3 is the monogram of Albert Dürer; Fig. 4, of Ludger zum Ring. The first typographers distinguished their publications by wood-cut vignettes, whose invention is ascribed to the elder Aldus; but besides these, each made use of a monogram or cipher, a series of which, well known to the bibliographer, fixes the identity of the ancient editions, German, Italian, and English, from the

Fig. 2.

MONOMA'NIA has loosely been made to represent every form of partial insanity; but has been more rigidly defined as that mental condition in which a single faculty, or class of faculties or associations, become diseased, the mind generally remaining healthy. Slight and solitary aberrations, such as where a savage antipathy to cats coexists with a love for human kind; where there appears to be an incontrollable tendency to steal, to squander, to drink, to destroy, are of common occurrence, and are supposed to be compatible with the exercise of intelligence, and with the discharge of many of the ordinary duties of life. By a more strict limitation, the term has been confined to such affections as involve the emotions and propensities alone. It is, however, held that, notwithstanding its apparent integrity, the whole mind is involved or influenced by the presence of such morbid conditions, at least while they are predominant. It is undoubtedly difficult to point out in what manner the belief, e. g., that a particular organ has been transmuted into glass, can interfere with or render the memory, or the power of instituting comparisons, defective and untrustworthy; yet it is legitimate to receive with caution every manifestation of powers so constituted that they fail to detect the incongruities and absurdities with which they are associated; or, having detected the real character of these errors, are unable or unwilling to cast them out, or to disregard them. There is much countethat even trivial forms of mental obliquity are nance given to this theory by facts which indicate connected with an unsound organisation; and that particular and rarely recognised monomanias are invariably associated with the same structural alteration. The unhealthy elevation of the sentiment of cautiousness, for example, especially where it amounts to fear of death, panic, or panphobia, is a symptom of disease of the heart and large bloodvessels; while the monomania of ambition, or optimism, as it has been styled, is the concomitant of the general paralysis of the insane. It will be obvious, from the definitions previously introduced, that the species or varieties of monomania must correspond to the faculties or phases of the human mind, and to their combinations. Several great divisions, however, have been signalised, both on account of their frequency and of their influence upon the individual and upon society. 1. Monomania of Suspicion, comprehending doubts in the fidelity and honesty of friends and those around, belief in plots and conspiracies, the dread of poison; and where, as is often the case, it is conjoined with cunning, the propensity to conceal, mystify, and deceive. This malady has frequently been observed Caxton. For a in intimate connection with cancer and malignant detailed account growths. 2. Monomania of Superstition and Unseen of the monograms Agencies, where credulity, mingled with religious of early printers awe, peoples the external world with spectres, omens, and others, see Brulliot, Dictionnaire des Monogram- mysteries, magnetism; and the imagination with mes (Munich, 1832-1834); Horne's Introduction horrors or ecstatic reveries. Insensibility to pain, or to Bibliography, vol. ii.; and Herbert's and Ames's indifference to external injuries, has been observed Typographical Antiquities. as a characteristic of individuals affected with this disease. 3. Monomania of Vanity, or Euphoria, where display and ostentation are indulged, without reference to the position and means of the patient. 4. Monomania of Fear. 5. Monomania of Pride and Ambition. 6. Kleptomania (q. v.). 7. Dipsomania (q. v.). If it can be proved that such morbid tendencies, as have been here mentioned, and others still less prominent, are merely salient points of a great breadth and depth of mental disease, the plea of insanity may justifiably be employed more frequently in the consideration of criminal acts.

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Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. invention of printing down to the middle or end of the 16th century. Fig. 5 is the monogram of Andrea Turresano d'Asola, father-in-law of Aldus Manutius; Fig. 6, of Luca Antonio Giunta, a celebrated printer of Venice between 1489 and 1500; Fig. 7, of William

Fig. 7.

MONOGRAPH, a work in which a particular subject in any science is treated by itself, and forms the whole subject of the work. Monographs are entirely of recent date, and have contributed much to the progress of science. In botany especially, monographs of orders and genera are very numerous; and some of them are among the most splendid and sumptuous of scientific works.

MONOLITH, a monument, column, obelisk, statue, or other structure formed of a single stone. In India, there are examples of monolithic temples, the whole being cut out of the solid rock.

Esquirol, La Monomanie; Bayle, Maladies du Cerveau; Stephens's Criminal Law of England, p. 92.