properly so called. The monastic institutes of the West are almost all offshoots or modifications of the BENEDICTINES (q.v.); of these, the most remarkable are the CARTHUSIANS, CISTERCIANS, GRANDMONTINES, CLUGNIACS, PREMONSTRATENSIANS, and above all MAURISTS, or Benedictines (q. v.) of St Maur. In more modern times, other institutes have been founded for the service of the sick, for the education of the poor, and other similar works of mercy, which are also classed under the denomination of monks. The most important of these are

described under their several heads.

The enclosure within which a community of monks reside is called a MONASTERY (q. v.)-Gr. monasterion, Lat. monasterium. By the strict law of the church, called the law of cloister or enclosure, it is forbidden to all except members of the order to enter a monastery; and in almost all the orders, this prohibition is rigidly enforced as regards the admission of females to the monasteries of men. To such a length is this carried in the Greek Church, that in the celebrated enclosure of Mount Athos, not only women, but all animals of the female sex are rigorously excluded. The first condition of admission to a monastic order is the approval of the superior, after which the candidates remain for a short time as postulants. After this preliminary trial, they enter on what is called the novitiate, the length of which in different orders varies from one to three years; and at its close, they are admitted to the profession, at which the solemn vows are taken. The age for profession has varied at different times and in different orders; the Council of Trent, however, has fixed 16 as the minimum age. Origin ally, all monks were laymen; but after a time, the superiors, and by degrees other more meritorious members, were admitted to holy orders. The distinction of priest-monks and lay-brothers has been already explained under the head FRIAR; but in both alike, where the order is one of those solemnly approved by the church, the engagement taken at the final profession is life-long and irrevocable.

The monastic institute, from the very earliest time, embraced women as well as men. The former were called in Greek by the name nonis or nonna, and in Latin nonna (from which the English nun), as also sanctimonialis. The cloistered residence of nuns is called by various names, as NUNNERY, CONVENT, a name also applied to the houses of men. The general characteristics of the monastic institute for females are substantially identical with those of the male orders; and as the principal varieties of institute are detailed under their respective heads, it is needless to particularise them

here.

It is hardly necessary to say that the reformed churches in the 16th c. discarded the practice of monachism, and suppressed the monastic houses. In some of the German states, the temporalities of the suppressed monasteries were retained, and were granted at pleasure by the sovereign, to be enjoyed together with the titular dignity. Some of the German churches, however, in later times, have revived the institute both for men and for women, as has also been done in the Anglican Church both in the time of Laud and in our own day. In all these Protestant revivals of monachism, however, the engagement is revocable at the will of the individual. At the French Revolution, the monastic establishments of France were utterly suppressed; and in most of the other Catholic countries of Europe, the example has been followed to a greater or less extent. In England and Ireland and America, on the contrary, the institute has made rapid progress within the last 20 years. Most of the orders, however, introduced into these countries are

of the active rather than of the contemplative class.

MO'NACO, a small principality of Italy, on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, a few miles northeast of the city of Nice. The climate is fine, so that oranges, lemons, &c. are produced in abundance. Pop. at present under 2000. From the 10th to the 18th c., M. was held by the Genoese family of Grimaldi. In 1815, it was ceded to Sardinia, which, however, recognised its independence, but reserved to itself the right of garrisoning the town

of Monaco.

communes-Monaco, Mentone, and Roccabruna, At this period, it consisted of three with an area of 52 square miles, and a population of about 7000. In 1848, Mentone and Roccabruna were annexed to Sardinia, in spite of a protest by his 'Serene Highness,' Carlo Honorio, third prince of Monaco. The Italian war of 1859 placed the whole territory for a brief period under Victor Emmanuel ; but Carlo Honorio having sold Mentone and Roccabruna (2d February 1861) to the French emperor for 4,000,000 francs, Sardinia was obliged to renounce her hold upon them. Carlo Honorio now itself. He resides six months of the year in Paris, possesses nothing but the city and territory of M. and six at M., which is a pretty little place on a rocky promontory, with about 1200 inhabitants.

MO'NAD (Gr. monas, unity), a term borrowed from the Peripatetic philosophy, although employed by moderns in a sense different from that of the Peripatetics, who used it to designate the universe, understood in the pantheistic sense. By moderns, and especially by LEIBNITZ (q. v.), from whose system alone the name has derived importance, it is used to describe the primary elements of all matter. The monads are simple uncompounded substances, without figure, without extension, without divisi bility, by the aggregation of which all bodies are formed, and into which all compounded things may The monads are created ultimately be resolved. things, but as being uncompounded, are indestructible; and although subject to change, the change is but external or relative. They are of two classesthe first are destitute of consciousness, although possessing an internal activity which is called by the name of perception; the second possess, in addition to perception, a certain consciousness, which is called by the name apperception' or consciousperception.

The monads of this class are souls, and according to the degree of their consciousness is the distinction between the souls of the higher and those of the lower intelligences. The Deity is The the PRIME MONAD, or MONAD OF MONADS. theory of monads enters largely into the philosophic system of Leibnitz, and indeed furnishes the key to much in that system which is otherwise obscure.

MONAD (monas), the generic name of many kinds of microscopic organisms, very minute, and supposed also to be of very simple organisation. They appear, even under a powerful microscope, as mere points, moving rapidly through the fluid in which they exist, and often becoming aggregated in clusters; or they are seen to be gelatinous and globular, or nearly so, with a tail or thong-like filament, by the vibrations of which they move. When the fluid is tinted by means of some harmless colouring matter, the existence of several cells or vesicles is discerned within the minute body. Ehrenberg therefore classed them among Polygastric Infusoria (see INFUSORIA), and no naturalist doubted their right to a place, although one of the lowest, in the animal kingdom. They are now universally regarded as vegetable, and are ranked among algæ. The organisms formerly known as Globe Animalcules (Volvox) are clusters of monads

nuns of the cognate orders (as the Benedictine), and as such, it comprises two great classes, the Abbey and the Priory. The former name was given only to establishments of the highest rank, governed by an abbot, who was commonly assisted by a prior, subprior, and other minor functionaries. An abbey always included a church, and the English word Minster, although it has now lost its specific application, has its origin in the Saxon and German Münster (Lat. monasterium). A Priory supposed a less extensive and less numerous community. It was governed by a Prior, and was generally, although by no means uniformly, at least in later times, subject to the jurisdiction of an abbey. Many priories possessed extensive territorial domains, and of these, not a few became entirely independent. The distinction of abbey and priory is found equally among the Benedictine nuns. In the military orders, the name of Commandery and Preceptory corresponded with those of abbey and priory in the monastic orders. The establishments of the Mendicant, and, in general, of the modern orders, are sometimes, though less properly, called monasteries. Their more characteristic appellation is Friary or Convent, and they are commonly distinguished into Professed Houses (called also Residences), Novitiates, and Colleges, or Scholastic Houses. The names of the superiors of

such houses differ in the different orders. The common name is Rector, but in some orders the superior is called Guardian (as in the Franciscan), or Master, Major, Father Superior, &c. The houses of females-except in the Benedictine or Cistercian orders are called indifferently Convent and Nunnery, the head of which is styled Mother Superior, or Reverend Mother. The name Cloister properly means the enclosure; but it is popularly used to designate, sometimes the arcaded ambulatory which runs around the inner court of the building, sometimes, in the more general sense of the entire building, when it may be considered as synonymous with

Convent.

MONASTI'R (more correctly, TOLI-MENASTIR, or BITOLIA), a town of European Turkey, eyalet of Rum-Ili, is situated in a broad valley of the Niji Mountains, 90 miles north-north-east of Janina, and about the same distance west-north-west of Saloniki. It is an important place, is the residence of the governor-general, and commands the routes between Macedonia and Northern Albania. The inhabitants are mostly Greeks and Bulgarians. M. has 11 mosques, and carries on a large trade with Constantinople, Saloniki, Vienna, and Trieste. From Constantinople alone it annually buys goods to the value of £1,500,000. Its bazaars, containing more than 2200 shops, are well stocked with the products of Western Europe and the colonies, as also with native manufactures. Yet it is one of the worst built and most tasteless towns in all Turkey. Pop.

40,000.

MONBODDO, JAMES BURNET, LORD, a Scottish lawyer and author, was born at Monboddo, in Kincardineshire, in 1714, educated at Marischal College, Aberdeen, where he displayed a great fondness for the Greek philosophers, and afterwards studied law for three years at Groningen, in Holland. In 1737, he became a member of the Scottish bar, and soon obtained considerable practice; but the first thing that brought him prominently into notice was his connection with the celebrated Douglas case, in which Mr Burnet acted as counsel for Mr Douglas. In 1767, he was raised to the bench by the title of Lord Monboddo. He died 26th May 1799. M.'s first work, on the Origin and Progress of Language (1771-1776), is a very learned, heretical, and eccentric production; yet in the midst of its grotesque

crotchets there occasionally flashes out a wonderfully acute observation, that makes one regret the distorted and misapplied talent of the author. The notion that men have sprung from monkeys, is perhaps that which is most commonly associated with the name of M., who gravely asserted that the orang-outangs are members of the human species, and that in the Bay of Bengal there exists a nation of human creatures with tails, and that we have only worn away ours by sitting on them, but that the stumps may still be felt. M. wrote another work, entitled Ancient Metaphysics, which was published only a few weeks before his death.

MONCADA, DON FRANCISCO DE, CONDE DE OSONA, an historian, and one of the Spanish classics, born 29th December 1586, at Valencia, where his grandfather was then viceroy. Descended from one of the greatest families of Catalonia, he rapidly rose to the highest offices in the state, was ambassador to Vienna, and latterly governor of the Netherlands, and commander-in-chief of the Spanish troops there. He distinguished himself both as a statesman and a soldier. He fell at the siege of Goch, a fortress in the duchy of Cleves, in 1635. His Historia de la Expedicion de Catalones y Aragoneses contra Turcos Griegos (Barcelona, 1623, and frequently reprinted), is a master-piece in liveliness and elegance of style.

MONCALIERI, a town of Italy in the province of Turin, situated finely on the slope of a hill, on the right bank of the Po, five miles above Turin. Pop. 9129. M. is the first railway station between Turin and Genoa, and communicates daily with Turin by frequent omnibuses; it has fine buildings, including a palace lately embellished for the resi The annual dence of King Victor Emmanuel. cattle-fair held in October, at M., is the most important of the north of Italy.

MONDO'VI, a town of Italy, chief town of the Sardinian province of same name, situated on the summit and shoulder of an Alpine hill, 50 miles south of Turin. It is divided into four sections: the Piazza-encircled by walls, and containing the chief buildings of the place, and the suburbs, In the Carassone, Breo, and Piano del Valle. neighbourhood, considerable activity exists in cloth, silk, and bonnet-straw manufactories; but in spite of vineyards and chestnut woods, the numerous remains of ruined buildings in its vicinity impart The Piazza an air of desolation to the locality. contains a fine cathedral, with rich paintings; an episcopal palace, with a noble gallery of portraits; and the various judicial and educational halls. Pop. (1851) 17,370. At the battle of M., on the 22d April 1796, the Sardinians were totally defeated by Bonaparte, and the entrance into Piedmont secured to the French army. The province of M. is intersected by spurs of the Alps, and contains rich marble quarries and valuable mineral products.

MONE'SIA BARK, the bark of a tree (Chrysophyllum glycyphlæum, or C. Buranheim), of the same genus with the Star Apple (q. v.), a native of the south of Brazil. The bark is lactescent; but when dried, it is thick, flat, compact, heavy, brown, and hard, with a taste at first sweet, afterwards astringent and bitter. A substance called Monesia is extracted from it, which is almost black, at first sweet, then astringent, and finally acrid. It is used as a stomachic and alterative in leucorrhoea, chronic diarrhoea, &c. It contains, in small quantity, a principle called Monesin.

MONEY, in Political Economy. This is a word in continual use all over the civilised world, and perhaps there is none the meaning of which in

connection with the business they have in hand is more distinctly understood by those who use it; and yet, on the other hand, there is none of which it is more difficult to give a comprehensive account or a strict definition. Presuming, then, that every one knows the practical use of the word in the affairs of common life, the best thing to be done here will be to point out a few distinctions which may tend to obviate confusion in the comprehensive use of the term as an element in economic science.

Money is often spoken of loosely as the same thing with capital; but they are different. Before anything is money, it must be such that you can go into the market and immediately use it in purchasing commodities or paying debts. The plant of a railway and the machinery of a mill, so long as they are in full use, are capital, and are capital which probably has once been money-but they are money no longer, because you cannot use them in making payments, though they have perhaps become more valuable than ever they were. The confusion of capital with money was the mistake made in issuing the French assignats on the security of the forfeited landed estates. Each assignat was a promise to pay; but when payment was demanded, it could not be made, because land was not a medium for making it. It is of the essence of money, then, that it is capable of making immediate payment either to satisfy a seller or a creditor. But an article may be money though it will not satisfy everybody; and articles available as money-even those most universally accepted as such-are available for other purposes. What we are familiar with as the most approved form of money-as the thing that will be most certainly received in payment all over the world is coin of the precious metals, The reason why the claim of these is so universally accepted is, that they do not merely represent value, as we shall find other kinds of money do, but they really are value. If the dealer sells a hat for a sovereign, he knows that the sovereign does not depend, like a pound-note, on the solvency of the issner, but that it has got value put into it by costing about as much labour and skill in bringing it into existence as the hat he gives for it. But even all coins perfectly available for money are not of the intrinsic value of their denomination. The silver for making 20 shillings is a good deal less valuable as a commodity than the gold in a Sovereign; and in the same way, 240 pence, which are as money equal to a sovereign, only make a percentage of it in value as merchandise. The convenience of their use for small transactions makes up for depreciation in value of coins of the inferior metals, when gold is a standard; and to prevent incidental abuses, the law limits the extent to which they are a legal tender as good money.

Money transactions are distinguished from barter, in which one commodity is transferred for another, as where the shepherd, in primitive times, may be supposed to have given the agriculturist a sheep for a measure of corn. This distinction is extremely useful, since the invention of a circulating medium, which supersedes the narrow, cumbrous process of barter, by facilitating transactions of every variety of importance among all sorts of people, is a grand type of advance in civilisation. Like many other distinctions, however, it has not an absolute line of demarcation. The precious metals hold their value by their being commodities as well as being money, and coins are frequently used up for plate and jewellery. Where money is only available within one narrow region, its use verges on barter. In Central Africa, purchases are made and debts paid by strings of beads or coils of brass wire. An ivory merchant or a traveller will lay in a stock of these,

just as in Europe he would carry gold or circularnotes. They are commodities, being used as ornaments by the inhabitants. But they are distributed to an extent far beyond the demand in this shape, and that they absolutely constitute money is shewn by this peculiarity in the case of beads, that a parti cular colour will pass current, and another will not; so that the merchant who chooses the wrong kind, though he have full value in merchandise, has not taken with him a supply of available cash.

Under the head of BULLION, it is shewn how the precious metals are an expensive form of money, which there is a temptation to supersede by paper-money. For the various opinions adopted by different classes of economists on paper-money, and the devices for getting over the great difficulty of rendering this kind of money secure, and equal in value to bullion, reference is made to the article CURRENCY. It may here be proper to state, that paper-money, or money founded on credit-one of the resources of advanced civilisation and complicated commerceintroduces a class of moneys so extensive and various, that it is impossible to mark the limits of its extent, or enumerate the shapes it may take. An attempt has been made to get rid of all difficulties by saying that a promise to pay is only the representative of money. But if it serve the purpose of buying or paying debt, it really is money. No one hesitates in counting a £5 Bank of England note as money. But a cheque by a person known to have a balance or credit at a solvent bank, is equally money; and though it is an order to pay, no actual bullion need ever be given for it, for the payment may be in notes, or the holder may hand it over to his own banker, in whose accounts it will be credited to the holder, and debited against the banker on whom it is drawn. The special difficulty as to paper-money is, that it may be mistaken for money when it is none, as in the case of a cheque not honoured by payment; or, that it may be of less intrinsic value than it professes to be, as when there is what is called an over-issue (see CURRENCY). There are thus great risks attached to the use of paper-money; but there are also risks specially applicable to bullion-money, as light weight, base coin, and the absence of those facilities for detection in theft or fraud, which are among the advantages of paper-money. The special risks attending the use of paper have been shewn in practice to be so capable of remedy by legislative precautions, that at present, in Scotland, one-pound notes are taken with less suspicion than sovereigns. On transactions in general, the chance of loss from forgery or insolvency is deemed less than the chances from light weight, even if the risk of base coinage should not come into consideration.

Making allowance for coins sent abroad or used as metal, the money of Britain is calculated at: gold, seventy millions; silver and copper, twelve millions; and notes, thirty-eight millions-in all, one hundred and twenty millions. But so large is the extent of paper-money, in the shape of drafts and bills, that of these payments, to the extent of more than two thousand millions in a year are settled at the London clearing-houses, or the establishments where the London banks, and those dealing with them, clear off their mutual obligations by paying over the balances.

MONGE, GASPARD, COMTE DE PÉLUSE, a French mathematician and physicist, was born of humble parentage at Beaune, in the department of Côte d'Or, 10th May 1746. When only fifteen, he went to study natural philosophy at the Oratorian College of Lyon, and afterwards obtained admission into the famous artillery school at Mézières, where

he invented the method known as 'Descriptive Geometry,' which was at first received with incredulity, but afterwards with avidity, and, for a time, jealously kept secret by the military authorities. In 1772, M. became tutor and professor at Mézières; in 1780, he was chosen a member of the French Academy; and in the same year, was called to Paris as Professor of Hydrodynamics at the Louvre. As a lecturer, he was precise, clear, and brief; his style was a model of scientific rigour, if not of literary elegance. During the heat of the Revolution, he became Minister of Marine, but after a few months resigned the office. He did not, however, retire into obscurity, but took charge of the great manufactories improvised for supplying the million of soldiers whom republican France had launched against her enemies, with arms and gunpowder. At this critical period, he shewed himself possessed of a genius equal to the occasion. He was everywhere, animating, ordering, counselling, and directing the patriotic artisans. Yet it is characteristic of the insane fanaticism that, for a time, got the upper hand in France, that M. himself only escaped the guillotine on account of his services being absolutely indispensable. After he had founded the Ecole Polytechnique, he was sent by the Directory to Italy, and intrusted with the transport of the artistic spoils of the republican armies. Here he formed a close friendship with Bonaparte, whom he followed to Egypt. He now undertook the management of the Egyptian Institute. During the expedition to Syria, he performed the greatest services to the government established at Alexandria. On his return to France, he resumed his functions as Professor in the Ecole Polytechnique, and, though his reverence for Napoleon continued unabated, he hotly opposed his aristocratic and dynastic views. The title of Comte de Péluse (Pelusium) was conferred on him by Napoleon, in memory of the Egyptian expedition. He died 28th July 1818. M.'s principal works are: Traité Elémentaire de Statique (7th edit. Paris, 1834); Leçons de Géométrie Descriptive (6th edit. Paris, 1837); and Application de l'Analyse à la Géométrie des Surfaces du 1 et du 2 Dégré (4th edit. Paris, 1809). See Dupin's Essai Historique sur les Services et les Travaux Scientifiques de Monge (Paris, 1819).

MONGHY'R, a city of India, capital of a district of the same name, is situated on the right bank of the Ganges, 30 miles west-north-west of Bhagulpur. It is a large and thriving town, and carries on extensive manufactures of hardware and firearms, which, however, are of very inferior quality. Owing to the salubrity of its climate, it is a favourite residence of invalided military men and their families. Pop. estimated at 30,000.-The district

has an area of 2558 square miles, with a pop. esti

mated at 800,000.

became known as a great city. Thus early did some of these nomadic tribes, forsaking their original pastoral habits, assume the character of a nation Another great offshoot from this stock founded an empire in China, the earliest date of which it is impossible to trace, but which certainly had reached a state of high civilisation at least 2000 years B. C. In early Greek history, they figure as Scythians, and in late Roman, as Huns, carrying terror and desolation over the civilised world. In the middle ages, they appear as Mongols, Tartars, and Turks. In the beginning of the 13th c., Genghis Khan (q. v.), originally the chief of a small Mongol horde, conquered almost the whole of central and eastern Asia. His sons and grandsons were equally successful, and in 1240-1241, the Mongol empire extended from the sea-board of China to the frontiers of Germany and Poland, including Russia and Hungary, and the whole of Asia, with the exception of Asia Minor, Arabia, India and the Indo-Chinese states, and northern Siberia. This vast empire soon broke up into a number of independent kingdoms, from one of which, Turkestan, arose another tide of Mongol invasion under the guidance of Timur or Tamerlane, who, in the latter part of the 14th c., reduced Turkestan, Persia, Hindustan, Asia Minor, and Georgia, under his sway, and broke, for a time, the Turkish power. On the death of his son Shah Rokh, the Mongol empire was subdivided, and finally absorbed by the Persians and Usbeks, but an offshoot of Timûr's family founded, in the 16th c., the great Mogul empire of Delhi. After the decline of Timûr's empire, the Turkish branch maintained the glory of the race, and spread terror to the very heart of Western Europe. In the 9th c., the Magyars, a tribe of Ugrians, also of Mongol extraction, under their leader Arpad, established themselves in Hungary, where, in process of time, they became converted to Christianity, and founded a kingdom famous in European history. See TURKS and HUNGARY.

The physical characteristics of the M. in their primitive state are thus described by Dr Latham in his Descriptive Ethnology: The face of the Mongolian is broad and flat. This is because the cheekbones stand out laterally, and the nasal bones are depressed. The cheek-bones stand out laterally. They are not merely projecting, for this they might be without giving much breadth to the face, inasdistance between the eyes is great, the eyes themmuch as they might stand forward. selves being oblique, and their carunculæ being concealed. The eyebrows form a low and imperfect arch, black and scanty. The iris is dark, the cornea yellow. The complexion is tawny, the stature low. The ears are large, standing out from the head; the

.... The

lips thick and fleshy rather than thin, the teeth

somewhat oblique in their insertion, the forehead low and flat, and the hair lank and thin.' Of course, such a description as this cannot be understood as applying to the more civilised nations of Mongol origin, such as the Turks and Magyars, especially the latter, who, in physical appearance, differ but little, if at all, from other European nations.