ameliorate the condition of the Protestants in her dominions. She had three sons and six daughters. Her eldest son, Joseph II., succeeded her.

MARIANA, JUAN, a distinguished Spanish historian and scholar, was born at Talavera in 1537, and in 1554 entered the then rising order of the Jesuits. His early studies, both in languages and theology, were so brilliant that he was appointed to teach in the schools of his order, first at Rome (where the celebrated Bellarmine was one of his scholars) in 1561, afterwards in Sicily in 1565, and finally in Paris in 1569. After a residence there of seven years, his health became so much impaired that he was compelled to return to his native country, and settled at Toledo, where he resided till his death, at an extreme old age, in 1624. His retirement, however, was not inconsistent with the most energetic and sustained literary activity. From an early period, he devoted himself to a History of Spain, of which he published 20 books in 1592, and 10 additional books, carrying the narrative down to 1516, in 1605. The original of this history was Latin, the elegance and purity of which have secured for M. a place among the most distinguished of modern Latinists. Its great historical merit also is admitted, although with some drawbacks, even by Bayle. M. himself published a Spanish translation, which still remains one of the classics of the language. Among his other productions, are a volume published at Cologne in 1609, consisting of Seven Treatises on various subjects; scholia on the Bible, which, although written at the age of 83, display a degree of vigour as of learning which might provoke the admiration of modern biblical students; an edition of the works of Isidore of Seville, with notes and dissertations; and several similar works. But the most celebrated of the works of M. is his well-known treatise, De Rege et Regis Institutione, which appeared in 1599, and in which is raised the important question, Whether it be lawful to overthrow a tyrant? M. decides that it is-even where the tyrant is not a usurper but a lawful king. See JESUITS. The principles of the book, in other particulars, are in the main the same as those of all modern constitutional writers. The tyrannicide doctrines of this writer drew much odium upon the entire order of Jesuits; but it is only just to observe that while, upon the one hand, precisely the same doctrines were taught in almost the same words by several of the Protestant contemporaries of M. (see Hallam's Literary History, iii. 130-140); on the other, M.'s book itself was formally condemned by the general Aequaviva, and the doctrine forbidden to be taught publicly or privately by

members of the order.

MARIAZE'LL, the most famous place of pilgrim age in Austria, on the north border of the crownland of Styria, 24 miles north of Bruck. It consists of a number of inns, or lodging-houses, and contains 900 inhabitants. It is visited by 100,000 pilgrims annually. Here there is an image of the Virgin believed to possess the power of working miracles. During the great annual procession from Vienna, the greater number of the pilgrims of both sexes spend the night in the woods in drinking, singing, and general riot. Formerly, the processions from Gratz and Vienna took place at the same time, but owing to the fighting, as well as debauchery, that characterised the occasion, the processions were ordained to take place at different times.

MARIE ANTOINETTE DE LORRAINE, JOSEPHINE JEANNE, wife of Louis XVI. of France, was the youngest daughter of Francis I., Emperor of Germany. Her mother was the famous Maria Theresa (q. v.). M. A. was born at Vienna,

November 2, 1755; at the age of fourteen, was betrothed to the Dauphin; and in the following year was married at Versailles. Her reception by her husband and the king, Louis XV., was flattering enough; but her Austrian frankness and simplicity, her naïveté, unceremonious pleasantry, and detestation of rigid etiquette. scandalised Versailles. libels were circulated by her enemies, accusing her Soon after the accession of Louis XVI. (May 1774), of constant intrigues, not one of which has ever been proved. Her faults, as a queen (and, in that age, rapidly growing earnest, angry, and imbittered, they were fatal ones), were a certain levity of disposition, a girlish love of pleasure, banquets, fine dress, an aristocratic indifference to general opinion, and a lamentable incapacity to see the actual misery of France. The affair of the diamond necklace (q. v.), in 1785, hopelessly compromised her good name in the eye of the public, although, in point of fact, M. A. was quite innocent of any grave offence. Her political rôle was not more fortunate. Loménie de Brienne and Calonne were ministers of her choice, and she shared the opprobrium called down upon them for their reckless squandering of the national finances. She strongly opposed the Assembly of the Notables, and in the following year, of the States-general, and, indeed, she had good reason to dread their convocation, for one of the very first things the of the derangement of the finances. From the first Notables did was to declare the queen the cause hour of the Revolution, she was an object of fanaHer life was tical hatred to the mob of Paris. attempted at Versailles by a band of assassins on the morning of October 6, 1789, and she narrowly escaped. After this, she made some spasmodic efforts to gain the goodwill of the populace by visiting the great manufactories of the capital, such as the Gobelins, and by seeming to take an interest in the labours of the workmen, but the time was gone by for such transparent shamming The relentless populace only hated

to succeed.

her the more.

At last she resolved on flight. Her husband long refused to abandon his country, of kingly duty and honour was not awanting to and she would not go without him. A dim sense Louis, but after the mob stopped his coach (April 18, 1791), and would not let him go to St Cloud, he consented. The flight took place on the night of the 20th June. Unfortunately, the royal fugitives were recognised, and captured at Varennes. From this time, her attitude became heroic; but the French people could not rid themselves of the suspicion that she was secretly plotting with the allies for the invasion of the country. After the useless effort to defend the Tuileries (August 10, 1792), she was confined in the Temple, and separated from her family and friends. Here she was subjected to the most sickening humiliations. About a year after (August 1, 1793), she was removed to the Conciergerie, by order of the Convention, condemned by the Revolutionary Tribunal (October 15), and guillotined next day. See Mémoires sur la vie privée de Marie Antoinette, by Mine Campan (Paris, 1823); Buchez and Roux, Histoire Parlementaire; and Lacretelle, Histoire de France pendant le XVIIIme Siècle (6 vols. Paris, 1850).

MARIE DE MEDICIS, wife of Henri IV. of France, was the daughter of Francis L., Grand-Duke of Tuscany, and was born at Florence, 26th April 1573. She was married to Henri 16th December 1600, and in the following September, gave birth to a son, afterwards Louis XIII. The union, however, did not prove happy. M. was an obstinate, passionate, waspish, and withal dull-headed female,

and her quarrels with Henri soon became the talk of Paris She was-as such women are apt to bewholly under the influence of favourites. A certain couple, who professed to be man and wife, Leonora Galigai and Concini, exercised a most disastrous induence over her mind, and, of course, encouraged her dislike to her husband. The assassination of Henri (May 14, 1610) did not much grieve her, and she was even suspected of complicity in the &t, but nothing was ever ascertained that could incriminate her. For the next seven years, she governed as regent, but proved as worthless a ruler as she had been a wife. After the death of Concini, a sort of revolution took place. Louis XIII assumed royal power. She was confined to her own house, and her son refused to see her. Her partisans tried to bring about a civil war, but their attempts proved futile; and by the advice of Richelieu, then Bishop of Luçon, she made her submission to her son in 1619, and took her place at court. M. hoped to win over Richelieu to her party, but she did not in the least comprehend that mighty genius; however, she soon enough found out that he had no mind to be ruled by her, whereupon she resolved, if possible, to undermine his influence with the king. Her intrigues for this purpose failed; she was imprisoned in Compiègne, whence she escaped, and fled to Brussels in 1631. Her last years were spent in utter destitution, and she is said to have died in a hayloft at Cologne, 3d July 1642

MARIE GALANTE, an island in the West Indies, one of the Lesser Antilles, belongs to France, and lies 17 miles south-east of Guadeloupe. Area, about 60 square miles, covered for the most part with wood, and surrounded by steep rocky shores. The cultivated soil produces sugar, coffee, and cotton. Cattle and horses are abundant, the latter of a highly esteemed breed. Its chief town, Grandbourg, or Marigot, on the south-west coast, has a population of 2000. The population of the island is 13,000. M. G. is so called from the name of the ship commanded by Columbus when he discovered the island in 1493.

MARI'ENBAD, one of the most frequented of the Bohemian spas, 33 miles north-west of Pilsen, at an elevation of almost 2000 feet above the level of the sea. The springs of M. have long been used by the people of the vicinity, but it is only since the commencement of the present century that it has become a place of resort for persons from distant parts of the world. The springs are numerous, varying in temperature from 48° to 54° Fahrenheit. They are saline, containing sulphate of soda and various alkaline ingredients, but differing considerably in their composition and qualities. They are used both internally and in the form of baths. Great quantities of the waters of some of the springs are exported to distant places. M. is surrounded by wooded heights, has a population of 1100, and is visited every season by upwards of 5000 patients.

MARI'ENBURG, an old town of Prussia, in the province of West Prussia, on the Nogat, 28 miles south-east of Danzig. It was long the seat of the Grand Masters of the Teutonic Order (q. v.) of Knights, who removed from Venice hither in the year 1300. The first fortress of the Knights, however, was founded here in 1274. M. remained in the hands of the Knights till 1457, when it was taken by the Poles. The castle, or palace, in which 17 Grand Masters had resided, a noble edifice in a species of Gothic peculiar to the vicinity of the Baltic, was restored in 1820. Pop. 7595.

t

MARIENWERDER, one of the most prosperous and beautiful towns of the province of West Prussia, is picturesquely situated on an elevation, about two miles east of the Vistula, and 47 miles south-south-east of Danzig. It was founded in 1233 by the Teutonic Order of Knights, and its old castle was the residence of a commander of that order. The town derives its prosperity chiefly from being a residence of numerous government officials. Manufactures of various kinds are carried on, and fruit is extensively cultivated. Pop. 6607. the natural order Composite, sub-order Corymbiferæ, MA'RIGOLD, a name given to certain plants of chiefly of the genera Calendula and Tagetes. The genus Calendula has the achenia remarkably curved, variously toothed, and very rough on the back. The species are annual and perennial herbaceous plants and shrubs, of which some of the former are ranean, the latter chiefly in South Africa. Por M. found in the countries bordering on the Mediter

officinalis) is an annual, a native of France and the more southern parts of Europe, with an erect stem, 1-2 feet high, the lower leaves obovate on long stalks, and large, deep yellow flowers. It has long been very common in British gardens, and there are varieties with double flowers. The whole plant has a slight aromatic odour, and a bitter taste. It was formerly in great repute as a carminative, and was regarded also as an aperient and sudorific.

The florets were the part used, and they were dried in autumn, to be preserved for use. They are often employed to adulterate saffron, and sometimes for colouring cheese. They were formerly a frequent ingredient in soups, and are still so used in some parts of England.-The genus Tagetes consists of annual and perennial herbaceous plants, natives of the warmer parts of America, although T. erecta, one of those most frequently cultivated in Britain, bears the name of AFRICAN MARIGOLD; and T. patula, another annual well known in our flowerborders, is called FRENCH MARIGOLD. Both species are Mexican. They have been long in cultivation, and with a little assistance of a hotbed in spring, succeed well even in Scotland, and are much adinired for the brilliancy of their flowers.-CORN M. is a Chrysanthemum (q. v.).—MARSH M. (q. v.) has no botanical affinity with the true marigolds.

MARINE ENGINE. See STEAM-ENGINE.

MARINE FORTIFICATION differs from land fortification in that the approaches of the enemy which are to be resisted take place on the level of the sea, so that he can come near without having to overcome the dangerous slope of the glacis. The combat is simply one between two powerful batteries, and the question to be decided 18, whether the ship or the fort will first be placed hors de combat: the ship having ordinarily the largest number of guns, while the fort has more solid battlements, and its fewer guns of great calibre can be fired with a steadiness unattainable on so shifting a base as the ocean. Under these circumstances, the less relief a sea-fortress has the better, as by so much the less is it likely to be hit from the shipping. Its walls are usually built perpendicular, or nearly so. The magazines and quarters for the men are bomb-proof, as also are the casemates, from which the guns are usually fired, although sometimes, as in the martello-tower, the gun is worked on the top of the structure.

Sea-fortifications may be of various importance ; the simplest being the battery consisting of a mere parapet formed in a cliff or on a hill, and mounted with guns to command the sea; these are generally built in such concealed situations, that it is hoped the hostile ships will not perceive them until they

actually open fire. They are numerous all around the British coast. Next greater in importance is the Martello Tower (q. v.). More powerful still are the beach-forts, such as those which on either shore defend the entrance to Portsmouth harbour these are constructed of the most solid masonry, and armed with guns of the heaviest calibre, sweeping the very surface of the sea, so as to

strike an approaching ship between wind and water. The guns are usually in bomb-proof casemates, and the fort is often defended on the land side, if the coast be level; if, however, higher ground be behind, this would be useless, and then the sea-front alone is defensible. Most terrible of all sea-forts, however, are the completely isolated forts, with perpendicular faces and two or three tiers of heavy guns. Such are the tremendous batteries which render Cronstadt almost inapproachable, and by which Spithead and Plymouth Sound are now being fortified. These forts are generally large, with all the requisites for a garrison to maintain itself; against them, wooden ships stand no chance, and in the American Civil War, Fort Sumter at Charleston has shewn itself no mean antagonist for ironsides. In the new forts at Spithead, &c., iron is to be employed as the facing, in plates of such vast thickness and weight, that it is supposed no ship can ever possess any comparable resisting power; and as they are to be armed with guns, the smallest of which will probably be 300-pounders, it is expected that they will be able to destroy any fleet that could be sent against them.

At the present day, the value of sea-fortifications is disputed, as iron-plated vessels may pass them with impunity, unless the artillery in the fort be so heavy as to destroy the armour of the ships. In the long-run, however, it is apparent that the fort can command the greater power; for its armour may be of any thickness, while that of the ship must be limited by her floating powers, and on the other hand, the limit to the size of artillery must be sooner reached in a ship than in a solid and stationary

fortress.

MARINE-STORE DEALERS, in point of law, are subjected to certain restrictions as regards the business they carry on, in order to keep some check on their relations with thieves and other vendors of stolen property. They are bound, under a penalty of £20, to have their name and the words 'Dealer in Marine Stores' distinctly painted in letters not less than six inches in length over their warehouse or shop; to keep books stating the name of the person from whom they bought or received the respective articles in their possession; not to purchase marine stores from any person apparently under 16 years of age; not to cut up any cable or article exceeding five fathoms in length without a permit from justices of the peace. By a recent act, 24 and 25 Vict. c. 101, dealers in old metals have also been subjected to similar restrictions. Whenever a dealer in old

MARINES are soldiers that serve on board ships of war. The men are drilled in all respects as soldiers (light infantry), and therefore on shore are simply ordinary land-forces. On board ship, they are trained to seamen's duties, but still preserving their military organisation. Their ordinary functions are as sharp-shooters in time of action, and at other times to furnish sentries for guarding the stores, gangways, &c. They are useful as exercising a good control over the less rigidly disciplined sailors; and having always firearms and bayonets ready, they have often been instrumental in suppressing the first outbreaks of mutiny. The Royal Marines are divided into four divisions of light infantry and one of artillery. Promotion cannot be purchased, but goes by seniority throughout the corps. In rank, marine officers correspond with army officers of similar grades according to seniority; as a corps, the marines take place between the 49th and 50th regiments of infantry of the line. Every ship, on being commissioned, has her complement of marines drafted into her. The uniform is red, with blue facings and white belts. On their colours, the men proudly bear the word 'Gibraltar,' in the famous defence of which fortress they bore an heroic part.

Marines were first established, as a nursery from whence to obtain seamen to man the fleet, by order in council of 16th October 1664. Their utility becoming conspicuous, other regiments of marine forces were raised, so that by 1741 there were 10,000 men, and in 1759 as many as 18,000. During the great French war, the number rose above 30,000, but a great reduction took place after peace was concluded. By the navy estimates of 18631864, 18,000 marines are provided, including_3150 artillery, at a cost for the year of £512,055. Their government rests solely with the Admiralty.

MARINI, GIOVANNI BATISTA, an Italian poet, born at Naples in 1569. After a period of fruitless study, M. abandoned jurisprudence for the more congenial pursuit of poetry, a decision which so incensed his father as to lead to his expulsion from home. All through life, M. seems to have courted troubles by his unbridled licentiousness, and many of his best compositions are polluted with a shameless obscenity, unavailingly deplored by the poet at the approach of death, when he expressed the desire that they should be suppressed and destroyed. M. quitted Naples for Rome, and finally followed in the suite of Cardinal Aldobrandini to Turin, where he was at first received with flattering notice from the reigning prince, Charles Emmanuel; but on the publication of some biting satirical verses, he was thrown into prison. On his release, he repaired to France, where Marie de Medicis received him with marked favour, and conferred on him a liberal pension. In his poem Il Tempio he celebrates this queen's noble qualities. His best work, the Adone, was written during his residence in France, and on its publication, he revisited his native country (1622), and died at Naples, aged 56, in 1625, in the midst of high public festivities in his honour. He is the founder of the Marinist school of poetry, of which the essential features are florid hyperbole and false overstrained imagery.

MARINO, or SAN MARINO, one of the most ancient and most limited republican states of Europe, consists of a craggy mountain 2200 feet in height, situated amidst the lesser ranges of the Apennines, and encircled by provinces formerly belonging to the Pontifical States. It possesses a total area of 21 miles, and comprises a town of the same name, and several villages in the adjacent territory. The climate is healthy, but, owing to its exposure, high winds and frequent rains prevail. The town of M. is built on a slope of the mountain; it is accessible only by one road, and is protected by walls and towers; it contains several squares and streets, rudely paved, and various public buildings, including seven churches, a town-hall, a theatre, the governor's palace, convents, museums, and hospitals. The inhabitants, who are reckoned at 8000, are noted for their hospitality, sobriety, industry, and general morality, They are sensitively jealous of their rights, and cling with tenacity to their territorial and legislative independence. Their chief trade is in agricultural produce and cattle.

The early history of the republic is very obscure. During the medieval wars of Italy, M. had its pigmy feuds and factions, which seem to have been none the less envenomed from the pettiness of the arena in which they were enacted. In 1740, the democratical form of government was securely guaranteed against further assault. The rights of this miniature state were scrupulously respected by Napoleon during his Italian campaign. The government, designated the Sovereign Grand Council (Generale Consiglio Principe), is composed of 60 members, of whom one-third are nobles. From this number are selected the smaller 'Council of Twelve' (twothirds from the town and the rest from the country), who, with the assistance of a jurisconsult, decide in questions of the 2d and 3d instance. The representatives of the state are termed Captains-regent (Capitani Reggenti). They are chosen, the one from the party of the nobles, the other from the bourgeoisie. They each hold office only for six months. The army, or rather the militia of the republic, numbers 1189 men.

MARIO, GIUSEPPE, MARQUIS DE CANDIA, was born at Turin in 1810, of an aristocratic family, and evinced from his boyhood high musical abilities. In 1830, he received his commission as officer in the Chasseurs Sardes; but having involved himself in some youthful escapade, was ordered from Genoa to a temporary retreat at Cagliari. From thence he threw up his commission, and finally escaped to Paris, on his resignation not being accepted. The young Sardinian deserter speedily won his way into the most exclusive circles of fashionable Paris, both by the genuine, manly stamp of his nature, and the charm of his exquisite voice. Having contracted debts, however, he accepted the appointment of first-tenor of the Opera, with a salary of 1500 francs per month; at the same time he changed his name from Marquis of Candia to Mario. After a term of two years' study at the Conservatoire, M. made his début, on the 2d December 1838, in Robert le Diable, and achieved the first of a long series of operatic triumphs. At the Théâtre Italien, he took rank with Rubini, Lablache, Malibran, Sontag, and Grisi; and by none of these great artists was he excelled in purity, sweetness, method, and taste. From 1845 to 1850, he fulfilled an engagement in Russia, and on his return appeared in London, where his success was immense. M.'s operatic career has been a succession of brilliant and remunerative engagements. In his private capacity, he is esteemed for his large-handed liberality to the many political exiles of his country,

and his noble assistance to struggling artists. His répertoire embraces all the great works of Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, and Verdi.

MARIO'LATRY (Gr. Maria, and latreia, adoration), a name given by polemical writers to the worship paid by Roman Catholics to the Virgin Mary. This name is intended to imply that the Catholic worship of the Virgin is the supreme worship of latreia or adoration, which Catholics earnestly disclaim, although, from her relation to our Lord, they hold her worship, which they style hyperdulia, to be higher than that of all other saints. See INVOCATION OF SAINTS. Many examples of prayers addressed to Mary, of acts of worship done in her honour, and of expressions employed regarding her, are alleged by controversialists, for the purpose of shewing that the worship of Mary in the Roman Church is in effect adoration.' Such are (see Farrar's Ecclesiastical Dictionary, p. 372) the Litany of the Sacred Heart of Mary;' the adaptation of the Athanasian Creed as a profes sion of faith regarding her; addresses to her as the 'hope of the desponding, and refuge of the destitute;' professions that her Son has given her such power that whatever she wills is immediately done;' kneelings and prostrations before her image; pilgrimages in her honour. To these and similar allegations, Roman Catholics reply, that many of the objected prayers and devotional practices are entirely unauthorised by the church, and that some of them are undoubtedly liable to misinterpretation; but they further insist that all such prayers, however worded, are to be understood, and are, in fact, understood by all Roman Catholics, even ordinarily acquainted with the principles of their faith, solely as petitions for the intercession of Mary, and as expressions of reliance, not on her own power, but on the efficacy of her prayers to her Son. It would be out of place in this work to enter into such controversies, and we shall content ourselves with a brief account of the origin and nature of the worship of the Virgin Mary in the church, and of its present condition, as it is professed by those religious bodies among which the practice now prevails.

Although no trace is found in the New Testament of any actual worship of the Virgin Mary, yet Roman Catholic interpreters regard the language of the angel Gabriel, who saluted her as full of grace,' or highly 'favoured,' and as blessed 'among women,' and her own prediction in the canticle of the Magnificat, that all nations should call her blessed' (Luke i. 48), as a foreshadowing of the practice of their church; and they rely equally on the language employed by the early Fathers, as, for instance, Irenæus, regarding the Virgin, although Protestants consider it as having reference to the incarnation. But it seems quite certain that, during the first ages, the invocation of the Virgin and the other saints must have held a subordinate place in Christian worship; the reason for which, according to Roman Catholics, was probably the fear which was entertained of reintroducing among the recent converts from paganism the polytheistic notions of their former creed. But from the time of the triumph of Christianity in the 4th c., the traces of it become more apparent. St Gregory Nazianzen, in his panegyric of the virgin martyr Justina, tells, that in her hour of peril she implored Mary the Virgin to come to the aid of a virgin in her danger' (Opp. tome i. pp. 278, 279). St Ephraim, the Syrian, in the same age, uses language which is held by Roman Catholics to be equally favourable to their view; and the fact that about this time there arose a sect, the Collyridians, who were condemned for the actual adoration of the Virgin, seems to them to prove

that some worship of her must have existed in the church, out of which this excessive worship of the Collyridians grew. But it was only after the heresy of Nestorius that the worship of Mary seems to have obtained its full development. His denial to her of the character of mother of God, and the solemn affirmation of that character by the ecumenical council of Ephesus (430 A. D.), had the effect at once of quickening the devotion of the people, and drawing forth a more marked manifestation on the part of the church of the belief which had been called into question. The 5th and 6th centuries, both in the East and in the West, exhibit clear evidence of the practice; and the writers of each succeeding age till the Reformation speak with gradually increasing enthusiasm of the privileges of the Virgin Mary, and of the efficacy of her functions as a mediator with her Son. St Bernard, and, still more, St Bonaventura, carried this devotional enthusiasm to its greatest height; and the popular feeling found a stronger and still more strong manifestation in the public worship of the church. From a very early period, we find several festivals of the blessed Virgin; but in the centuries to which we refer, the number received large additions. The institution of the Rosary of the Virgin Mary,' the appointment of a special office in her honour, and more than all, the fame of many of the sanctuaries which were held to be especially sacred to her worship, gave a prominence to the devotion which Protestants find it difficult to reconcile with the honour which they hold due to God alone.

The chief festivals of the Virgin, common to the Western and Eastern Churches, are the Conception, the Nativity, the Purification, the Annunciation, the Visitation, and the Assumption. All these festivals are retained in the English calendar. The Roman Church has several special festivals, with appropriate offices-all, however, of minor solemnity.

MARIONETTES, little jointed puppets of wood or cardboard, representing men and women, and moved by means of cords or springs by a concealed agent. They are exhibited in what are called marionette theatres, the exhibiter varying his voice, so that a sort of dramatic performance is accomplished. This entertainment was known to the Greeks, and from them passed to the Romans. modern times, it has chiefly prevailed in France and Italy, and has there reached a very respectable degree of artistic perfection.

In

MARIOTTE, EDME, a distinguished French natural philosopher, was born in Burgundy during the first half of the 17th c., and was the prior of St Martin-sous-Beaune, when the Academy of Sciences admitted him within its pale in 1666. His life is devoid of particular interest, having been almost wholly spent in his cabinet, among his books and instruments. He died in 1684. M.'s forte consisted in an extraordinary power of drawing conclusions from experiment. He repeated Pascal's experiments on gravitation, and detected some peculiarities which had escaped that ingenious philosopher; confirmed Galileo's theory of motion; enriched hydraulics with a multitude of discoveries, and finally made a thorough investigation into the subject of the conduction of water, and calculated the strength necessary for pipes under different circumstances. His collected works were published at Leyden in 1717, and at the Hague (2 vols. 4to) in 1740. His Traité du Mouvement des Eaux was published by La Hire (Paris, 1786, 12mo).

MARIOTTE, LAW OF, an empirical law deduced by Boyle (q. v.) and Mariotte (q. v.) from two independent series of experiments, though, strangely enough, reached by both at about the same time; it

is generally expressed as follows: The temperature remaining the same, the volume of a given mass of gas is in inverse ratio to the pressure which it sustains. This law may be held to be substantially correct within a considerable range of pressure. But the labours of Regnault have made it evident that atmospheric air and most other gases, especially under very high pressures, are really more compressed than if they followed the law. This deviation is most marked in the case of gases capable of being liquefied, as they approach the point of liquefaction.

MARITZA (the anc. Hebrus), a river of European Turkey, in the province of Rumili, takes its rise in lat. 42° N., long. 24° E., and flows east-south-east to Adrianople, where it bends south, and falls into the Egean by the Gulf of Enos. It is upwards of 300 miles in length, and is navigable to Adrianople, about 100 miles from its mouth.

MARIU'POL, or MARIAMPOL, a seaport in the government of Ekaterinoslav, Russia, is situated near the place where the Kalmius falls into the Sea of Azov, 60 miles west of Taganrog. It was founded in 1779 by Greek emigrants from the Crimea, and the port was opened to foreign vessels in 1836, when 20 ships entered it; but by 1853 their number had increased to 309. The articles of export are wheat, linseed, wool, and hides from the adjacent provinces, the total value in 1853 being £500,000. The imports are insignificant, ships most commonly arriving in

ballast.

Pop. 5289, who speak a corrupt jargon derived from the Turkish and Greek languages.

MA'RIUS, C., a Roman general, was born of an obscure family, at the village of Cereatæ, near Arpinum, 157 B.C. In the Numantine war (134 B. C.), he served with great distinction under the younger Scipio Africanus, who treated him with high consideration, and even indicated that he thought him a tit successor to himself. In 119 B. C., he was elected tribune of the plebs, and signalised himself by his vigorous opposition to the nobles, by whom he was intensely hated. In 114 B. C., he went to Spain as proprætor, and cleared the country of the robbers who infested it. He now married Julia,

the aunt of Julius Cæsar. He accompanied Q.

Cæcilius Metellus to Africa in 109 B. C., was elected consul two years after, and intrusted with the conduct of the Jugurthan war, which he brought to a successful close in the beginning of 106 B. C. and L. Sulla, then his quæstor, which was ultiFrom this period dates the jealousy between him mately productive of so many horrors. Meanwhile, an immense horde of Cimbri, Teutones, and other northern barbarians, had burst into Gaul, and repeatedly defeated the Roman forces with great slaughter. M. was again called to the consulate for the year 104 B. C., and for the third, fourth, and fifth time in the following years, 103-101 B. C., for it was felt that he alone could save the republic. The war against the Teutones in Transalpine Gaul occupied him for more than two years; but he finally annihilated them in a battle of two days' duration at Aqua Sextiæ, now Aix, in Provence, where 200,000-according to others, 100,000-Teutones were slain. After this, he assumed the chief command in the north of Italy against the Cimbri (q. v.), whom he also overthrew, near Vecellæ to the west of Milan, with a like destruction (101 B. C.). The people of Rome knew no bounds to their joy. M. was declared the saviour of the state, the third founder of Rome, and his name was mentioned along with those of the gods at banquets. He was made consul for the sixth time in 100 B. C. It has often been remarked, that, had he died at this period, he would have left behind