LOUIS XVIII.-LOUIS NAPOLÉON.

the constitutional charter from his hands on 4th Jane. See FRANCE.

The conduct of the government, however, was far from being constitutional or liberal. The nobles and priests exercised an influence over the weak king, which led to severe treatment of the Imperasts, the Republicans, and the Protestants. Then flowed Napoleon's return from Elba, when the king and his family fled from Paris, remained at Ghent till after the battle of Waterloo, and returned to France under protection of the Duke of Wellington. He issued from Cambrai a proclamation in which he acknowledged his former errors, and promised a general amuesty to all except traitors. Again, however, he followed in many things the counsels of the party which detested all the fruits of the Revolution. But the Chamber of Deputies, elected with many irregularities, was fanatically myalist, and the king, by advice of the Duke de Richelieu, dissolved it; whereupon arose royalist plots for his dethronement, and the abolition of the charter. Bands of assassins were collected by nobles and priests in the provinces, who slew hundreds of adherents of the Revolution and of Protestants, and years elapsed ere peace and good order were in any measure restored. L. died, 16th September 1824.

The capture of Warsaw by the Russians, however, put a stop to further proceedings in this matter, and L. N. once more turned to his silent and sombre studies. The death (22d July 1832) of the Duke of Reichstadt, sometimes called Napoléon II., only son of the first Emperor, opened the future to his ambitious hopes; and even his supporters admit that, from this date forward, his whole life, speculative and practical, was devoted to the realisation of what now became his fixed idea;' viz., that he was destined to be the sovereign of France. Between 1832 and 1836, he published several works, which not only kept him prominently before the French public, but evoked a considerable amount of political and intellectual sympathy. We may mention his Rêveries Politiques, Projet de Constitution, Deux Mots à M. de Chateaubriand sur la Duchesse de Berri (in verse), and Considérations Politiques et Militaires sur la Suisse. In 1836, believing in the instability of the throne of Louis Philippe, and in the general disaffection of the bourgeoisie, encouraged also by the proofs of vivid attachment to his person displayed by nearly the whole of the democratic party, but, above all, confiding in the grandeur of those memories which his name recalled, he, with a few associates, among whom was the Comte de Persigny, since better known, made his famous LOUIS NAPOLÉON, whose full name is attempt at a coup d'état at Strasbourg. It was, as CHARLES LOUIS NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, and his all the world knows, a ludicrous failure. L. N. was titular designation, Napoléon III., Emperor of the taken prisoner under humiliating circumstances, and French, was born at Paris, in the palace of the after some days conveyed to Paris; but the governTuileries, 20th April 1808. He is the third son of ment of Louis Philippe was afraid to bring a BouaLes Bonaparte, brother of the first Emperor. parte to trial-as in such a case it could not rely See BONAPARTE FAMILY. His birth was celebrated upon the impartiality of a French jury --and in conwith great rejoicings throughout France, as that sequence shipped him off to America. The illness of of an heir to the imperial throne, for by the law his mother soon caused him to return to Europe. of succession (dated 28th Floreal, year 12, and 5th He found her dying; two months later, he received Frimaire, year 13), the crown, in default of direct her last sighs (3d October 1837). Although the descendants of the Emperor himself-and he at affair of Strasbourg had naturally enough caused that time had none-could be inherited only by many people to doubt the talent and particularly the children of two of his brothers, Joseph and the judgment of L. N., still Louis Philippe, who was, Louis. But Joseph was also childless, and the sons politically speaking, an extremely timid monarch, of Louis, in consequence, became heirs-apparent. dreaded some new conspiracy, and, in consequence, After the restoration of the Bourbons, the ex-queen the French government demanded of Switzerland Hortense, mother of L. N., went into exile, carrying the expulsion of the obnoxious prince from its with her her two sons, Napoléon Louis and Louis territories, M. Molé actually enjoining the French Napoléon. Since 1810, she had been separated ambassador to request his passports, in case of a from her husband. L. received his early education refusal. Switzerland was violently agitated, and was in the castle of Aremberg, on the shores of Lake almost on the point of going to war for the distinConstance, where his mother resided. He was guished refugee (who was, in fact, a Swiss citizen), furnished with the best tutors that could be got, when the latter resolved to prevent a rupture by and was far from proving a slothful pupil. At leaving his adopted country. He now proceeded the gymnasium of Augsburg, he displayed quite a to England, and settled in London. With certain passion for history and the exact sciences. His love members of the British aristocracy, he came to of athletic sports was equally conspicuous: he was a footing of considerable intimacy, and one of the best fencers, riders, and swimmers in the there can be no doubt that he was also an object of whole school. In Switzerland, his inclination and languid wonder and interest to the community aptitude for military strategy, especially in artillery generally, but he impressed nobody with a belief in and engineering, was first developed. He even his future and his genius; nay, Englishmen erred served for some time as a volunteer in the federal so far as to suppose that the 'silent man' was merely camp at Thun, and at a later period in his life wrote dull.' In 1838, he published in London his Idées & Manuel d' Artillerie (Zürich, 1836). In 1830, when Napoléoniennes, which, read in the light of subsean insurrection broke out in the pontifical states, quent events, are very significant. Europe generally L. N. and his brother took part in it. The latter regarded them as idle dreams; but in France the died at Forli, and L. N. himself fell dangerously book went through numerous editions. ill at Ancona, and was only saved by the tender L. N. was in Scotland, and took part in the celedevotedness of his mother. The Austrian occupa-brated Eglinton tournament. Next year (1840), tion of Ancona forced them to quit the city secretly; taking advantage of the sentiment aroused by the they proceeded to France, but their incognito being betrayed, they were expelled by Louis Philippe, after a few days, and crossed over to England, whence they soon returned to Switzerland. Such, however, was the charm of N.'s name, that the chiefs of the Polish insurrection offered him, in 1831, the command of their legions, as the nephew of the greatest captain of all ages,' and also the crown of Poland.

live on

In 1839,

bringing home of the ashes of his uncle from St Helena, he made another attempt on the throne of France at Boulogne. It was as grotesque a failure as the one at Strasbourg, and undoubtedly provoked a certain feeling of contempt for its author in the mind of the general public. Captured on the shore, while endeavouring to make his escape to the vessel that had brought him from England, L. N. was

201

LOUIS NAPOLÉON-LOUIS PHILIPPE

This

again brought to trial, and condemned to perpetual by terrorism, and of course the same value cannot imprisonment in the fortress of Ham. Here he be placed upon this as on the previous expression composed several works, Aux Mânes de l'Empereur; of national confidence. L. N. was now emperor in Fragments Historiques; Analyse de la Question de fact; nothing was wanting but the name. Suisse; Réponse à M. de Lamartine; and Extinction was assumed exactly a year after the coup d'état, du Pauperisme, wrote political articles for the demo- in accordance, as it appeared, with the actual wish cratic journals, and actually took part in editing the of the people. The principal political events of his Dictionnaire de la Conversation, a valuable French reign since then have been the conspiracies against encyclopædia. After an imprisonment of more than him (1853), the attempts at assassination (by Pianori, five years, he made his escape (25th May 1846), by 1855, and Orsini, 1858), the Anglo-French alliance the help of a Dr Conneau, in the disguise of a work- and the Crimean war (1854-1856), and still more man, and gained the Belgian frontier, whence he recently the Franco-Italian war (1859), in which returned to England. The revolution of February the French and Sardinians wrested Lombardy from (1848) caused him to hurry back to France, where Austria, and the overthrow of the Mexican republic he professed himself devoted to the views of (1863). On the 30th January 1853, the emperor the Provisional Government; the latter, however, married Eugénie Marie, Countess of Montigo, a requested him to leave the country. This he pro- Spanish lady of distinguished beauty; from this mised to do; but being elected deputy for Paris and union has sprung one child, the prince imperial, three other departments, he took his seat in the born 16th March 1856. Different opinions are enterConstituent Assembly, 13th June 1848. A stormy tained in regard to the régime of Louis Napoléon. debate followed, and on the 15th he resigned his seat, The apologists of the emperor can, however, point and, either from policy or patriotism, left France. to the immense strides which French trade has Recalled to France in the following September made under his rule; to the enlightened principles by a quintuple election, he once more appeared in of commercial intercourse which he has adopted, in the Assembly, and at once, through the agency of spite of the ignorance of his subjects; to the vast his zealous associates, commenced his candidature extension of railways, the magnificence of the public for the presidency. The masses were rightly or buildings, and the uniform desire which he has shewn wrongly thoroughly in his favour. Out of seven to ascertain and carry out the real wishes of the and a half million of votes, 5,562,834 were recorded French people. for Prince L. N.; General Cavaignac, who was nearest to him, obtaining only 1,469,166. This fact is declared by the partisans of the emperor to be an absolute proof of his popularity, for at this period he had neither power nor money to force or bribe opinion. On the 20th December, he took the oath of allegiance to the republic. For a few days, concord seemed to be re-established between the different political parties in the Assembly; but the beginning of the year 1849 witnessed the commencement of a series of struggles between the president and his friends on the one side, and the majority of the Assembly on the other-the latter being profoundly penetrated with the conviction that L. N. was not devoted to the interests of the republic, but to his own. The French expedition to Italy and the siege of Rome were, above all, the causes of violent discussion in the chambers. This anarchic condition of things, in which, how ever, the president tenaciously held his ground, was summarily put a stop to by the famous or infamous (for opinions differ) coup d'état, 2d December 1851. The principal actors in this midnight deed were the president himself, M. de Morny, M. de Maupas, and General St Arnaud. The circumstances that marked it were of necessity odious, and even atrocious; and there cannot be the shadow of a doubt that it has engendered in the mind of Europe a distrust of the honesty of L. N., which it is not likely will ever be wholly removed. His success was certainly magnificent, but the cost has also been enormous. The feeble attempts at an armed resistance in Paris were put down by the military, who were favourable to the president, and under the command of his accomplices. rigorous system of repression was put in force both in Paris and in the departments, and the deportation to Cayenne and Algeria became painfully familiar to the European public. France, as a whole, however, whether wearied of the incompetent democrats, or (as Kinglake supposes) 'cowed' by the terrible audacity of the president, appeared to acquiesce in his act; for when the vote was taken upon it on the 20th and 21st of the same month, he was re-elected president for ten years, with all the powers he demanded, by more than 7,000,000 suffrages. His enemies affirm they were obtained

A

LOUIS PHILIPPE, King of the French, born at Paris, 6th October 1773, was the eldest son of Louis Philippe Joseph, Duke of Orleans. He received at his birth the title of Duke of Valois, and afterwards that of Duke of Chartres. His education was intrusted to the care of the celebrated Madame de Genlis. He entered the National Guard, and became a member of the Club of Friends of the Constitution, afterwards that of the Jacobins. Along with his father, he renounced his titles, and assumed the surname of Egalité. He shewed both courage and capacity in the war; but his situation became very dangerous after the unsuccessful battle of Neerwinden, in which he commanded the centre. He was included in the order for arrest issued against Dumouriez, and on the 4th April 1793 escaped along with him into the Austrian territory. He sought in Switzerland a place of security for his sister Adelaide, wandered about amongst the mountains for four months, and accepted a situation as teacher of geography and mathematics in a school at Reichenau, near Chur, assuming the name of Chabaud-Latour. He afterwards wandered for some time in the north of Europe, and then went to North America. In 1800, he took up his abode at Twickenham, near London, with his two younger brothers, both of whom soon after died. In 1809, he married Marie Amelie, daughter of Ferdinand I. of the Two Sicilies. On the fall of Napoleon, he hastened to Paris, where he was received with distrust by Louis XVIII. After the second Restoration, he recovered his great estates, which the imperial government had sequestrated. Disliked by the court, he was very popular in Paris. He kept aloof, however, from political intrigues; and the three bloody days of the revolution of 1830 were nearly over ere he was brought forward, the banker, Laffitte, proposing in the provisional committee his appointment as lieutenant-general of the kingdom, from which he proceeded to the acceptance of a constitutional throne, 9th August 1830. He defended his conduct towards the elder Bourbons by protesting that he acted for the welfare of France. He cultivated peaceful relations with foreign powers, sought to strengthen his throne by gaining the support of the middle classes, and repressed all the extreme parties by what became known as the Juste-milieu (q. v.)

LOUIS-D'OR-LOUSE.

and admitted as a state in 1812. Invaded by the British troops in 1814, under General Packenham, New Orleans was successfully defended by General Jackson. The population, largely of French descent, called Creoles, was in 1860, free, 376,280; slave, 333,010-total, 709,290.

policy. The extreme democrats hated him, and frequent attempts were made on his life, by infernal machines and otherwise. The country prospered under his government, but a demand for reform in the electoral system became loud and general, and was unwisely opposed by the king and the Guizot (q.v.) ministry; whilst the conduct of the former in the matter of the marriages of the queen of LOUISVILLE, a city of Kentucky, United Spain and her sister, manifesting a disregard of States of America, on the Falls of the Ohio, 130 every consideration but the interests of his own miles below Cincinnati. It is handsomely built, family, excited a strong feeling of indignation with broad streets, on a level plain. Main throughout Europe. The French nation became Street is three miles long. The city is supplied much excited; reform banquets' began to be with water from the Ohio, and by artesian wells, held; the government attempted to prevent them one of which has a depth of 2086 feet, a threeby force; insurrectionary movements ensued in the inch bore, and supplies 330,000 gallons of water streets of Paris on 22d February 1848; and the in 24 hours, which rises to a height of 170 feet. Citizen King' saw with alarm that the National The court-house cost 1,000,000 dollars. There Guard could not be expected to support him. On is a fine custom-house, jail, marine asylums, 8 24th February, he abdicated in favour of his grand- orphan asylums, 60 churches, 2 synagogues, 5 son, the Count de Paris; but the Chamber of daily, and 12 weekly papers, 8 pork-packing estabDeputies refused to acknowledge the boy as king. lishments, employing 1200 men, large hemp and L P., deserted by his courtiers, fled to the coast of tobacco factories, and a commerce of 100,000,000 Normandy along with his queen, concealed himself per annum. Steamers pass over the rapids for some days, and at length found opportunity of of the Ohio at high water, but at other times pass escaping in a British steam-boat to Newhaven under through a canal and locks. Pop. in 1860, 69,740.— the name of Mr Smith. The brief remainder of his It was named L. (1780) in honour of Louis XVI. life was spent in England. He died at Claremont, of France, whose troops were then assisting the 26th August 1850. Americans in the war of independence.

LOUIS-D'OR (i. e., Golden Louis), a gold coin which was introduced into France in 1641, and continued to be coined till 1795. It was introduced in consequence of the prevalent custom of clipping and otherwise defacing the then coins of the realm, from which malpractices it was thought to be in some measure secured by its border. The old coins were called in. The louis-d'or ranged in value from about 16s. 7d. to 18s. 94d. sterling. Some louis-d'ors bear special names, chiefly derived from the figure exhibited on the obverse side. In some parts of Germany, the larger gold pieces, of five thalers or thereby, are often popularly called louis-d'or, and the name is also occasionally applied to the French napoleon or 20-franc piece.

dollars

LOUSE (Pediculus), a genus of insects, the type of a very numerous family, which forms the order Parasita or Anoplura. The body is flattened, almost transparent; the segments both of the thorax and abdomen very distinct; the mouth is small and tubular, enclosing a sucker; there are no wings; the legs are short, and are terminated by a claw adapted for taking hold of hairs or feathers. The eyes are simple, one or two on each side of the head. All the species are small, and live parasitically, on human beings, terrestrial mammalia, and birds. They deposit their eggs on hairs or feathers, to

C

8

LOUISIANA, one of the United States of America, bounded on the south by the Gulf of Mexico, and on the west by the state of Texas. It is 290 miles from east to west, and 200 from north to south, having an area of 41,255 square miles, or 26,403,200 acres. The principal rivers are the Mississippi-which has a course of 800 miles in this state, and whose delta traverses its southern halfRed River and the Washita, and their branches. The principal towns are New Orleans, and Baton Rouge, the capital, on the Mississippi. The coastline, a portion of the shore of the Gulf of Mexico, A, louse, magnified; B, louse, natural size; C, one of the legs, is 1256 miles in length. The surface is flat, rising nowhere more than 200 feet, and of alluvial formation.

A large portion of the state is below the high-water level of the rivers, and is protected by dikes, called levées, from inundations. The land is generally of great richness, producing sugarcane, cotton, rice, maize, tobacco, oranges, bananas, figs, peaches, &c. In the forests are several kinds of oak, hickory, locust, sassafras, mulberry, &c. The state has produced in a year 300,000,000 lbs. of sugar, 368,000 bales of cotton, 10,000,000 bushels of maize. The commerce of the state through New Orleans is very extensive. There are 6 colleges, 143 academies, 664 public schools, 307 churches, 55 periodicals, 10 public libraries. L. was settled by the French in 1699; in 1716, it was granted to John Law, who based upon his grant the famous Mississippi Company; ceded to Spain in 1762; receded to Napoleon I. in 1800; purchased in 1803 by the United States, for 15,000,000 dollars,

Louse:

magnified; D, eggs, magnified; E, eggs, natural size.

which they attach them by a glutinous substance; and they multiply with astonishing rapidity. The young cast their skin several times before they reach their maturity, which in the best known species is said to be about eighteen days after they are hatched, but, from the first, they are very similar to their parents. Animals of different kinds are infested by different species of L. peculiar to them; those which are found on birds exhibiting characters considerably different from those of man and mammals. The same species is rarely found on different species of animals, unless very nearly allied; but some animals have more than one of these parasites. Three infest the human race: one confined to the head, the COMMON L. (P. capitis); another, the BODY L. (P. vestimenti s. corporis), very similar to it, but of a larger size; a third, the CRAB L. (Phthirius pubis), sometimes

LOUTH-LOUVAIN.

LOUVIERS-LOVAT.