by two Boards of Works, one for the City, and one for the rest of the metropolis; and is now being improved by a vast and costly system of sewerage, paid for by the householders. Nearly all the drainage and sewage, after the year 1866, will enter the Thames at points 12 miles below London Bridge, instead of in London itself; the expense of the new Sewers will exceed £4,000,000. The Gas supply is in the hands of joint-stock companies; and so is the Water supply: the water being obtained from the Thames, and from the New River, one of its affluents. In Police jurisdiction, the City of L. is entirely distinct from the rest of the metropolis. In 1863, an attempt was made by the government to bring all under one jurisdiction; but the opposition of the citizens was so strong, that the attempt failed. The City police, about 650 in number, are in 6 divisions, and have 7 stations; there are 2 police-offices or justice-rooms, one at the Mansion House, and one at Guildhall. All the rest of the metropolis is under the Commissioners of Metropolitan Police, with head-quarters at Whitehall. There are 18 divisions, all but one (the Thames Police) denoted by letters of the alphabet; the full force, officers and men, is about 7000. There are 15 police-offices, attended by 27 police magistrates, for taking cognizance of offences within the metropolis, but outside the City.

The Streets of L. depend mainly for their direction on the course of the Thames; the principal of them being nearly east and west. One line of route extends from Hammersmith to Mile End and Bow, through Piccadilly, Strand, and Cheapside; another, beginning in the Uxbridge Road, passes through Oxford Street and Holborn, and joins the former at Cheapside. There is still a deficiency of wide thoroughfares for the City traffic; but a new street about to be made from Blackfriars Bridge to the Mansion House will open a new and useful avenue -in connection with an important Thames Embankment, which is to extend from Blackfriars Bridge to Westminster Bridge, on the north bank of the river. Most of the new streets formed within the last few years are far superior in all respects to those formed fifty or a hundred years ago-except those at the outskirts, which are mostly poor and slight. Regent Street and the Quadrant form the finest street in London, for general effect; but the most palatial street is Pall Mall, owing to the number of Club-houses situated there, most of which are fine buildings. Of the 50 principal club-houses in L., the Army and Nary, Guards', University, Carlton, Reform, Travellers, Athenæum, United Service, and United University, are in this one street. Perhaps the wealthiest range of shops in the world is that which lies on the route from Charing Cross to Cornhill

Among the buildings in L. belonging to the crown or to the nation, the following are the principal: St James's Palace, an irregular and inelegant cluster of buildings, used for court purposes, but not as the Queen's residence. Buckingham Palace, the Queen's London residence, a large but low quadrangular mass, with very inadequate court accommodation. Marlborough House, lately refitted and furnished as a residence for the Prince and Princess of Wales. Kensington Palace, occupied not by royalty, but by recipients of court-favour. Houses of Parliament, a vast structure, which has cost £3,000,000; perhaps the finest, and certainly the largest, Gothic building in the world applied to civil purposes; the river-front is 900 feet long. Westminster Hall, a noble old structure, of which the main hall is 290 feet by 68, and 110 high. Somerset House, a quadrangular structure with a river-frontage of 600 feet; it is mostly occupied by government offices. The Admiralty, noticeable chiefly for the

screen in front of the courtyard. The Horse Guards, the official residence of the commander-in-chief, with an arched entrance to St James's Park. The Treasury, the Home Office, the Privy Council Office, and the Board of Trade, occupy a cluster of buildings in Whitehall. The Foreign, Colonial, India, and Exchequer Offices are being rebuilt. The War Office, in Pall-Mall, a large but plain brick building. The British Museum (q. v.). The National Gallery, one half devoted to a portion of the national pictures, and the other to the Royal Academy. The Museum of Economic Geology, in Jermyn Street, a small but well-planned building. The South Kensington Museum, a medley of buildings more remarkable for convenience than for beauty, and filled with a miscellaneous but valuable collection. The Custom House, with a long room 190 feet by 66, is finely situated on the river-side. The General Post-office, a noble mass in St Martin's-le-Grand, has a central hall 80 feet by 60, and 53 high, with a vast number of offices all around it. The Mint, on Tower Hill, is a cluster of buildings in which the gold and silver coinage is managed. The Tower of London is a confused mass of houses, towers, forts, batteries, ramparts, barracks, armouries, storehouses, and other buildings, included within a boundary of about 900 feet by 800, at the extreme eastern verge of the City.

L. is the seat of a bishopric, which comprises about 320 benefices. The income of the bishop is £10,000 a year. St Paul's is the cathedral for the diocese; it is situated at the east end of Ludgate Hill, extending to Cheapside, and was built by Sir Christopher Wren (1675-1710) at a cost of £748,000. It is built in the form of a cross, is 514 feet long, by 286 wide; the cross, which surmounts the ball over the dome, is 356 feet above the marble pavement below. St Paul's contains many monuments to illustrious persons. Westminster Abbey, also cruciform, is 530 feet in extreme outer length, by 203 in width; the west towers are 225 feet high. Henry VII.'s Chapel, at the east end, is a beautiful example of enriched Gothic. The Abbey has no special connection with the see of London, but is intimately connected with some of the court and parliamentary ceremonials. It was originally a Benedictine Monastery, and is said to have been founded by Sebert, king of the East Saxons (circa 616); enlarged by King Edgar and Edward the Confessor; and rebuilt, nearly as we now see it, by Henry III. and Edward I. Here the kings and queens of England have been crowned, from Edward the Confessor to Queen Victoria; and here many of them have been buried. The Poet's Corner is a wellknown spot of the Abbey. St Saviour's, in Southwark, is the third in importance of the L. churches. The largest Roman Catholic Church is in St George's Fields. The largest Dissenting Chapel is Mr Spurgeon's Tabernacle. There are in L. about 850 places of worship; those open for service in the closing months of 1862 may be thus classified: Church of England, 335; do. chapels, 71; Independent, 100; Baptist, 89; Wesleyan, 104; Methodists, various, 43; Roman Catholic, 31; English Presbyterians, 11; Friends' Meeting-houses, 8; Jews' Synagogues, 10; Catholic and Apostolic (Irvingite), 6; Scotch, 7; various denominations, 36.

Of Schools of all kinds, there are in L about 1200 private, and 600 public-the latter including Free, Parochial, National, and British Schools. The chief educational establishments are King's College, University College, Gordon College, Regent's Park College, New College, Wesleyan College, Hackney College, Training Colleges belonging to the National, British and Foreign, and Home and Colonial School Societies, Westminster School, St Paul's School,

Charter House School, Christ's Hospital, or the Blue Coat School, the Gray and Green Coat Schools, Merchant Taylors' School, Mercer's Grammar-school, City of London School, and two Ladies' Colleges. There are about 70 alms-houses in London. The societies, associations, and institutions, of a more or less permanent character, maintained for other than money-making objects, are not less than 600 in number. Of the Hospitals, the chief are Guy's, the London, the Westminster, the Charing Cross, St George's, Middlesex, King's College, University College, the Small-pox, the Consumption, the Lock, and the Royal Free Hospitals. St Thomas's Hospital (near London Bridge), owing to the extension of the South-eastern Railway, has been pulled down; it is to be rebuilt on another site. St Luke's and Bethlehem (for insane persons), and the Foundling Hospital, are special in their objects. Of the 600 institutions above alluded to, about 200 are hospitals, dispensaries, infirmaries, and asylums; while the remaining 400 are religious, visiting, or benevolent institutions.

There are 7 courts of equity, 3 courts of common law, 5 sheriffs' courts, and 10 county courtsbesides various courts coming under other designations. There are five sessions-houses (Old Bailey, Guildhall, Clerkenwell, Westminster, and Horsemonger Lane). The prisons have undergone many changes within the last few years, partly owing to the decay of old buildings, and partly to changes in the law of imprisonment. At present, the buildings actually used as prisons are 12 in number-viz., Newgate, Holloway, Pentonville, Cold Bath Fields, Whitecross Street, Milbank, Tothill Fields, Clerkenwell, Brixton, Fulham, Horsemonger Lane, and Wandsworth. The chief buildings in L. connected with law and justice are the following: the Westminster Hall Courts of Law and Equity; the Lincoln's Inn Courts of Equity; the Guildhall Courts; the Central Criminal Court in the Old Bailey; Ecclesiastical and other special courts at Doctors' Commons, &c. What are called the Inns of Court are in some sense colleges for practitioners in the law; they comprise the Inner Temple, the Middle Temple, Lincoln's Inn, and Gray's Inn; and there are others called Inns of Chancery, comprising Thavies', Furnival 8, Staple, Barnard's, Clifford's, Clement's, Lyon's, New, and Serjeant's Inns. Connected incidentally with legal matters is the Record Office, a large depository for official papers in Fetter Lane. The legal practitioners in L., besides judges, &c., comprise about 3900 solicitors and attorneys, and 1900 barristers.

In connection with the shipping of L., and the import and export trade, the Docks above-named contain 273 acres of water space, and 106,000,000 cubic feet of warehouse, shed, and vault accommodation-besides warehouses in various parts of the city, away from the docks. In 1860 (1861 and 1862 were exceptional years, owing to the disturbance of trade occasioned by the civil war in America) the number of ships that entered or left the docks was 5819, with a tonnage of 1,996 438 tons-averaging a little over 300 tons each. This almost entirely excluded the colliers; for nearly all the sailing-vessels which come to L. lader with coal, instead of entering docks to unload their cargoes, lie in the stream of the river, and transfer their coal to lighters, which convey them to the yards of coal-merchants, situated either on the banks of the river itself, or of the canals which run into it. The shipping of the port of L., in 1860, comprised 2943 vessels, of 919,591 tons burden, giving an average, as in the abovenamed case, of a little over 300 tons each. Onefourth of the whole tonnage of England belonged to

Of

London. The number was made up of 2516 sailingvessels and 527 steamers. The port of L. owned more than half the large steamers in England. the 29,542 ships that entered the port of L. in 1860, there were 18,365 engaged in the coasting trade, 8949 in the foreign, and 2628 in the colonial; they had an aggregate tonnage of 6,151,291 tons, and nearly all came with cargoes. About the same number of vessels left the port; but many of these, especially the coal-ships, were in ballast. With regard to kind, 24,204 of the total number were sailing-vessels; the rest steamers. With regard to country, 24,666 were British; the rest foreign. 1860, the declared real value of all the merchandise exported from the port of L. was £30,837,688, nearly one-fourth of that of the exports for the whole United Kingdom.

In

The customs duties in the port of L. in that year amounted to £11,781,819.

The principal markets of L. are the Cattle Market at Pentonville, Covent Garden (vegetable) Market, Billingsgate (fish) Market, Newgate and Leadenhall (meat and poultry) Markets. The establishments for wholesale dealings are, of course, stupendous in character; of coal alone, L. now requires more than 4,000,000 tons annually. The whole number of distinct trades or occupations in L. is about 2000. There are about 80 Trade Guilds or City Companies in L., many of which possess large revenues; but they do not now exert much influence on the actual course of trade and manufactures; the chief among them, called the Twelve Great Companies, are the Mercers', Grocers', Drapers', Fishmongers', Goldsmiths, Skinners', Merchant Taylors', Haberdashers', Salters', Ironmongers', Vintners', and Clothworkers' Companies, all of which have Halls, in which banquets are held. The Goldsmiths', Apothecaries', and Stationers' Companies still exercise some active control over those trades. The Banks in L., either private or joint-stock, are about 90 in number, many of which have two or more banking-houses. There are 95 Insurance Offices; some for life only, some for fire only, some for life and fire. The buildings for these banks and insurance offices are among the best in London. The Bank of England, one of Sir John Soane's most successful works, gives employment to

feet; Thanet Sands, maximum thickness, 90 feet: total, 730 feet.

The London Clay Proper consists of tenaceous dark-gray and brown clay, with layers of septaria, which occur in sufficient quantity in the beds near Harwich and along the coast of Harwich to be used for the manufacture of Roman cement. In Hampshire, the clays are bluish, and have running through them bands of sand, sometimes compacted into hard stone, called Bognor Rock. In both basins, the clay rests on a thin bed of variously coloured sand and flint pebbles. The London Clay is rich in fossils. Many palm and other fruits have been described by Bowerbank from the island of Sheppey: masses of wood, often bored by the teredo, are not unfrequent. The mollusca belong to genera which now inhabit warmer seas than those of Britain, such as cones, volutes, nautilus, &c. About fifty species of fish have been described by Agassiz from Sheppey, among which are a sword-fish and a sawfish. The remains of several birds and pachydermatous animals tell of the neighbourhood of land; and the numerous turtles, with the crocodiles and gavials, whose remains are associated with them, no doubt infested the banks of the great river which floated down the Sheppey fruits.

The Plastic Clays, or Woolwich and Reading series of Prestwich, are very variable in character, consisting chiefly of clays and argillaceous sands, which are used, as their name implies, in the manufacture of pottery. They contain a mixture of marine and fresh-water shells, shewing that they have been deposited in estuaries. They attain their maximum thickness of 90 feet in the Isle of Thanet, and thin out westward, till at Windsor they are only four feet thick-beyond this, they entirely disappear.

LONDON CONFERENCES. The first diplomatic meeting so designated was held in 1826 and the following years, for the regulation of the affairs of Greece; the next one was held in 1830, to arrange terms of agreement or of separation between Belgium and Holland. The terms of agreement proposed not being accepted by the disputants, Holland made an appeal to arms; but the capture of Antwerp by the French, and the blockade of their coast by the English and French fleets, brought the Dutch to agree to a treaty of definitive separation, 21st May 1833. A third conference was held in 1840, on the Turko-Egyptian question, in which France refused to take part. In 1851, a protocol was signed in London by the representatives of all the Great Powers, declaring the indivisibility of the Danish monarchy (inclusive of Slesvig and Holstein).

LONDON UNIVERSITY. When University College, London, was first established (in 1825), it was known as L. U., although a mere joint-stock undertaking. A change took place in 1836, when it received a charter as University College. At the same time, by another charter, L. U. was established-not a building for teaching, nor a body of teachers and scholars, but a body of persons empowered to examine candidates and confer degrees. As this second charter was only valid during royal will and pleasure,' it required to be renewed at the death of William IV., and the accession of Victoria; and a new charter was accordingly granted, December 5, 1837. Additional powers were given, July 7, 1850; and a wholly new charter was signed April 9, 1858, instituting many changes in the functions and arrangements of London University. University College, London, is still carried on in Gower Street, the original spot; but the University of London, or L. U., occupies apartments

in

granted by the government in Burlington House. The body consists virtually of a Chancellor, Vicechancellor, 36 Fellows, and an indefinite number of Graduates. The Chancellor is appointed for life, or during royal pleasure, by the crown. The Vice-chancellor was named by the crown in the new charter of 1858, but is since annually elected by the Fellows from among their own body. The 36 Fellows were named by the crown that charter, for life; but as vacancies occur, the crown and the university fill them up in a mode that gives some control to each. The Graduates are those who, at any time since 1836, have had degrees (Bachelor, Master, or Doctor of certain faculties) conferred upon them by this university. The Senate is composed of the Chancellor, Vice-chancellor, and Fellows, and has the power of making the whole of the by-laws for the government of the university-within certain limits prescribed by the charter, and with the approval of the Secretary of State. The Convocation is composed of all the graduates, except those who have taken the lower degrees only a few months; it meets occasionally, to vote and decide upon several minor matters, such as do not touch upon the higher functions intrusted to the senate. It gives the graduates a certain esprit de corps; but the charter seems to confine all real power to the senate.

When the new charter was given, in 1858, there were 47 colleges and collegiate schools in connection with L. U.-two in the colonies, and the rest in the United Kingdom. The number has since been considerably increased. The Secretary of State and the senate have the power of deciding what additional establishments shall be included. All these are regarded as schools, at of education; and certificated scholars from these which youths have gone through a good course schools may go up to L. U. to be examined, Examiners for this purpose are appointed by the as a preliminary to the attainment of degrees. senate, which also defines the extent and mode of examination. By the charter of the university, theology is entirely excluded. The degrees obtainable are those of Bachelor and Master of Arts, Bachelor and Doctor of Medicine, Bachelor and Doctor of Laws, and (since 1859) Bachelor and Doctor of Science.

Doctor (or Master) is the result of a second and In each faculty, the degree of higher examination of those who are already Bachelors. Students also, under defined conditions, can try for certificates of competency, independent of degrees, which certificates are an important aid during the competitive examinations now adopted in reference to the public service.

From a Return of the General Fee Fund' of the

L. U. presented to parliament in 1863, it appears that in the year April 1862–March 1863, the university received about £8500, of which £5000 was the annual grant from parliament, and £3500 fees. Of this income, about £5500 was paid in salaries, and £2000 in exhibitions, scholarships, medals, and prizes.

LONDONDERRY, ROBERT STEWART, second MARQUIS OF, born at Mount Stewart, Down County, Ireland, June 18, 1769, eldest son of Robert, first marquis, who represented the county of Down many years in the Irish parliament. Educated at the Grammar-school, Armagh, and at St John's College, Cambridge, he entered the Irish parliament in 1789, although then under age. In 1796 he became Viscount Castlereagh; and in 1798 he was made Chief Secretary for Ireland. It was the year of the insurrection and the French invasion, and some allowance must be made for the terrible

severities employed by the Irish government. Yet the cruel part he acted or tolerated in Ireland, in the suppression of the rebellion, and effecting the union, always weighed upon his reputation. In 1802, he was appointed President of the Board of Control, in the Addington administration. In 1805, he was promoted to the seals of the War and Colonial department, but resigned, with the whole of the cabinet, on Pitt's death in 1806. In the following year, he resumed the office of War Minister, when he organised the disastrous Walcheren expedition. Mr Canning, then Foreign Secretary, attacked Lord Castlereagh on this account with much acrimony and personality. The result was that both resigned, and a hostile meeting took place between them (21st September 1809), in which Canning was wounded. In 1812, after the assassination of Mr Perceval, Lord Castlereagh became Foreign Secretary, a post which he held during the period illustrated by the military schievements of the Duke of Wellington. By this time the general direction of British policy was unalterably fixed by circumstances, and Lord Castlereagh has at least the merit of having pursued this fixed course with a steadiness, and even obstinacy, which nothing could abate. He was the soul of the coalition against Bonaparte, and it was only by his untiring exertions, and through his personal influence, that it was kept together. He represented England at the Congress of Vienna in 1814, at the treaty of Paris in 1815, and at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818. While his foreign policy was favourable to the principles and policy of the Holy Alliance' abroad, he constantly recommended arbitrary and despotic measures at home. As the leader of the Liverpool government in the Lower House, he carried the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act in 1817, and the Six Acts,' or the Gagging Bills,' as they were called, of 1819 -measures which will for ever stamp his name with infamy. The retirement of Canning from the ministry, rather than be a party to the prosecution of Queen Caroline (1820), threw the whole weight of business on Lord Castlereagh. By the death of his father in 1821, he became Marquis of Londonderry; but his mind became deranged, and he died, by his own hand, at his seat at Foot's Cray, Kent, August 12, 1922. The populace witnessed the funeral procession in silence; but when the coffin entered the walls of Westminster, a loud and exulting shout rent the air, which penetrated into the abbey, and broke upon the stillness of the funeral ceremony. This statesman, looked upon by one party as a paragon of perfection, has been characterised by the other party as the most intolerable mischief that ever was cast by an angry Providence on a helpless people.'

LONDONDERRY, a maritime county of the province of Ulster, in Ireland, 40 miles in length by 34 in breadth, bounded N. by the Atlantic, E. by the county Antrim, and in part by Lough Neagh, S. by Tyrone, and W. by Donegal. Its area is 810 square miles, or 522,350 acres, of which 318,282 are arable. The population in 1861 was 184,137, of whom 83,428 were Catholics, 30,871 Protestants of the Established Church, 66,014 Presbyterians, and the rest Protestants of other denominations. The surface of L. is irregular. From the eastern boundary, it rises gradually towards the west, for a distance of about 10 miles, where commences an elevated district, rising in several points to a considerable height; Sawell, on the southern border, being 2236 feet high. On the western side, the surface falls gradually towards Lough Foyle. The coast-line along the Atlantic is generally bold and precipitous. The shore of Lough Foyle is in most places an unvarying

plain. The county may be divided longitudinally into two great geological districts, separated from each other by the river Roe. In the western, which is mountainous, the mica-slate prevails, accompanied in some places by primitive limestone. In the eastern, the mica-slate is overlaid by a succession of varying beds, capped, as in the adjacent Antrim district beyond the Bann, by a vast area of basalt, the dip of which, however, is the reverse of that on the opposite side of the river, and increasing in thickness towards the north, where in one place it reaches a depth of 900 feet. Many of the strata contain iron, and the ironstone of the mountain called Slieve Gallion was formerly worked, but the mining operations have been abandoned, from the failure of fuel. The soil is of a very mixed character, the greater part, with the exception of the alluvial spots on the banks of the several rivers, and of a considerable open district which stretches southward to Tyrone, being ill suited for wheat, or indeed for any cereal crop. In the year 1862, 197,239 acres were under crops of all kinds. The number of cattle was 93,902; of sheep, 26,285; of pigs, 28,214. The total value of live-stock, in 1851, was £817,108. The system of agriculture has been materially improved under the impulse given by the London society upon the large estates which it holds in the county. The principal rivers are the Foyle, the Faughan, the Roe, and the Bann. The first is navigable as far as L. for ships of 800 tons burden. The Bann, besides being a great source of motive-power for the staple manufacture of Ulster, that of linen, is also celebrated for its salmon-fisheries, which are of great value. The chief towns are Londonderry City (q. v.), Coleraine, Newtown-Limavady, and Magherafelt. L. was in ancient times the seat of the great septs of O'Loughlin and O'Neill, and of their tributary sept of O'Cahan, or O'Kane. At the immediate period of the invasion, the English, under John de Courcy, attempted a settlement, but were forced by the O'Neills to withdraw. Á small garrison within their colony was established near the Antrim border, at Coleraine, upon the river Bann; but from the 14th till the 16th c., their tenure was little more than nominal; and although a number of forts, with a considerable garrison, were erected upon the river Foyle in 1600, it was not till the flight of the celebrated Tyrone and O'Donnell that the English occupation of the district was consummated, their forfeited lands being granted by the crown to the corporation of London, who still retain them, the management being vested in a body, 26 in number, who are elected by the common council, one half retiring each year. The incorporation, by charter, of this body, in 1619, led to the formation of the county, called, from this circumstance, Londonderry. Portions of the county were assigned to the several city companies, the unassigned portions being held by the society. The memory of the confiscation long rankled, and perhaps still lingers, in the minds of the dispossessed Irish and their descendants; but in material prosperity the district underwent a rapid and marked improvement. The agriculture is in a condition considerably in advance of the majority of Irish counties, and the domestic manufacture of linen, in former times, added materially to the comfort of the population. Of late years, however, this manufacture, in all its branches, has been transferred for the most part to large establishments. There is considerable export and import trade at the ports of Derry and Portrush, which is the seaport of Coleraine. The former has become a port of call for the Canadian steamers, which touch on their outward and homeward passage at the entrance of Lough Foyle. The number of national schools in

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