Miguel Garcia Ascensio, &c.; into Danish, by Rask; into German, by Olearius, Schaller, &c. Recent editions are by Bernstein (Gött. 1817), Caussin de Perceval (Paris, 1818), Freytag (Bonn, 1823), Rödiger (Leip. 1830, &c.), Schier (Dres. 1831), Rasch (Copenh. 1832), Derenburg (Berl. 1850), &c.

A book, Amthál (Parables), ascribed to L., and supposed to contain more than a thousand apologues, maxims, parables, sentences, &c., has never been discovered. L.'s supposed grave is shewn at Ramlah, near Jerusalem.

LOLIUM. See DARNEL and RYE-GRASS. LO'LLARDS, or LO'LLHARDS, a semi-monastic society, the members of which devoted themselves to the care of the sick and of the dead. It was first formed about the year 1300 in Antwerp, where some pious persons associated themselves for the burial of the dead. They were called from their frugal life, and the poverty of their appearance, Matemans; also, from their patron saint, Brethren of Saint Alerius; and, on account of their dwelling in cells, Fratres Cellite; whilst they acquired the name L. from their practice of singing dirges at funerals -the Low-German word lollen, or lullen, signifying to sing softly or slowly. They soon spread through the Netherlands and Germany, and in the frequent pestilences of that period, were useful, and everywhere welcome. The clergy and the begging-friars, however, disliked and persecuted them, classing them with the heretical Beghards (see BEGUINES), till Gregory XI. took them under his protection in 1374. Female Lollard societies were formed in some places. The L. having been reproached with heresy, their name was afterwards very commonly given to different classes of religionists, sometimes to the truly pious, sometimes to the worst pretenders; and in England, it became a designation of the followers of Wicliffe (q. v.), and thus extended into Scotland, where the L. of Kyle (in Ayrshire) attracted attention, and became the objects of persecution in the end of the 15th century.

LOMBARD, PETER (rather, Peter the Lombard), one of the most famous of the Schoolmen, was born at a village near Novara, in Lombardy. He was a pupil of Abelard, afterwards became a teacher of theology in Paris, and in 1159 was appointed Bishop of Paris. Bayle says that he was the first who obtained the title of Doctor of Theology in the university of Paris. He died at Paris in 1164. He was very generally styled Magister Sententiarum, or the Master of Sentences, from his work Sententiarum Libri IV., an arranged collection of sentences from Augustine and other Fathers, on points of Christian doctrine, with objections and replies, also collected from authors of repute. It was intended as a manual for the scholastic disputants of his age, and as may be inferred from what has just been said, is a compilation rather than an original work. It was the subject of many commentaries down to the time of the Reformation. The works of Peter L were edited by Aleaume (Louvain, 1546).

LOMBARD ARCHITECTURE is the style which was invented and used by the Gothic invaders and colonists of the north of Italy, from about the age of Charlemagne till it was superseded by the importation of the pointed style from France in the beginning of the 13th century. The architecture of the Lombards was derived from the Romanesque (q. v.), or debased Roman style which they found in the country-the general plan of the churches, and the general form of the pillars, arches, &c., being almost identical with that of the Roman Basilicas (q. v.). But in detail, there is no such resemblance; the Roman traditions are entirely abandoned, and instead of

the debased acanthus leaves and fragments of entablatures, so characteristic of the Romanesque style, the Lombards adopted a freer imitation of natural forms in their foliage, and covered their buildings with representations of the fights and hunting-expeditions in which they delighted. On their first arrival in Italy, they used Italian workmen; but when their own people became more numerous, they also laid aside the sword for the trowel. Accordingly, wherever in North Italy the Lombards were numerous, their style prevailed; and where the Romans predominated, the Romanesque prevailed. The north of Italy belonged naturally, at the time of Charlemagne, to the great German empire, and thus we find nearly the same style of architecture in Lombardy and in Germany as far north as the Baltic. See RHENISH ARCHI

TECTURE.

Few early examples of Lombard architecture exist. In the unruly times when the style originated, the buildings were no doubt frequently destroyed by fire; this seems to have led to the desire to erect fireproof structures, and thus the earlier as well as almost all the later examples are vaulted with stone, whereas the Romanesque basilicas are generally roofed with wood. This stone roof seems to have been the great desideratum in the new style. The earliest example is a small chapel at Friuli, built probably during the 8th c., and it is covered with an intersecting vault. Examples of this date are rare in Italy; but in Switzerland, where the style is almost identical, several interesting specimens of early architecture remain, such as the churches of Romain-Motier, Granson, Payerne, &c., in which the transition

from the Romanesque to

the round arched Gothic

is

very clearly traceable. We there find the pecu

liar arch-ornament SO

characteristic of Lombardy and the Rhine (tig. 1), and we can trace the timid steps by which the Goths advanced in the art of vaulting.

Fig. 1.

The vaulting is the leading feature of Lombard architecture, and from it spring the other distin guishing forms of the style. Thus, the plain, round pillars, with a simple base and capital, which served to support the side-walls and roof of a basilica, are changed for a compound pier, made up of several shafts, each resting on its own base, and each provided with a capital to carry the particular part of the vaulting assigned to it. This change is deserving of particular notice as the first germ of that principle which was afterwards developed into the Gothic Style (q. v.). Buttresses are also introduced for the first time, although with small projection.

The Cathedral of Novara is one of the most

It

striking examples of Lombard architecture. belongs to the 11th century. The plan (fig. 2) shews the arrangement common at this epoch all over the German empire. It is derived from the old basilican type, having at the west end an open atrium, with arcade around, from which the church is entered by a central door. The interior is divided into central and side aisles, with vaulted roof, and terminated with an apsidal choir. At the end of the atrium opposite the church, is situated the baptistery. At Asti, there is an interesting example of the early Lombard Baptistery. The same general arrangement of plan afterwards became common in the German churches, the atrium being roofed over and included in the nave, and the baptistery forming the western apse of the double-apsed churches. The elevation of Novara is ornamented with those arcades and arched

architecture (fig. 1).

Gothic of the Cisalpine countries. On the one hand, its origin can be traced back to the Roman basilicas; while on the other it embodied those principles from the development of which sprang the great Gothic style of the middle ages.

LOMBARDS, a German people of the Suevic family, not very numerous, but of distinguished valour, who played an important part in the early history of Europe. The name is derived from Longobardi, or Langobardi, a Latinised form in use since the 12th c., and is generally supposed to have been given with reference to the long beards of this people; although some derive it rather from a word parta, or barte, which signifies a battle-axe. About the 4th c., they seem to have begun to leave their original seats (on the Lower Elbe, where the Romans seem to have come first in I contact with them about the beginning of the Christian era), and to have fought their way southward and eastward, till they came into close contact with the eastern Roman empire on the Danube, adopted an Arian form of Christianity, and after having been for some time tributary to the Heruli, raised themselves upon the ruins of their power, and of that of the Gepidæ, shortly after the middle of the 6th c., to the position of masters of Pannonia, and became one of the most wealthy and powerful nations in that part of the world. Under their king Alboin (q. v.), they invaded and conquered the north and centre of Italy (568-569). The more complete triumph of the L. was promoted by the accession of strength which they received from other German tribes following them over the Alps-Bulgarians, Sarmatians, Pannonians, Norici, Alemanni, Suevi, Gepidæ, and Saxons-for the numbers of the L. themselves were never very great.

The L., after the example of the Romans themselves in the conquests of former times, were for the most part contented with a third of the land or of its fruits. One of their kings, Authari (584 been borne by some of the later Roman emperors, -590), assumed the title of Flavius, which had and asserted the usual claims of a Roman ruler; whilst the administration of the Lombard kingdom was soon so superior to that which then prevailed in other parts of Italy, that to many the change of masters was a positive relief from unjust and severe exactions. Whilst the higher nobility, however, in general retained some portion of their former wealth and greatness, the possessors of small properties became fewer in number, and sunk into the class of mere cultivators, to whom it was comparatively indifferent whether they acknowledged a Roman or a Lombard superior. The rights of the municipal corporations also, although acknowledged, were gradually abridged, partly through the encroachments of the Lombard dukes, and partly through those of the higher clergy, till few relics of their ancient self-government remained. These few, however, were the germs from which, at a subsequent period, the liberties of the independent Italian cities were developed.

The conversion of the Arian L. to the orthodox faith was brought about by the policy of Gregory the Great and the zeal of Theodolinda, wife of Authari, and subsequently of his successor, Agilulf (590-615).

Theodolinda persuaded Agilulf to restore a portion of their property and dignities to the Catholic clergy, and to have his own son baptized according to the Catholic rites. She also built the magnificent Basilica of St John the Baptist at Monza, near Milan, in which in subsequent times was kept the Lombard crown, called the Iron Crown (q. v.). The L. were

Liutprand (713-744), raised the Lombard kingdom to its highest prosperity. He quelled with strong hand the turbulence of the nobles, gave the finishing blow to the exarchate of Ravenna, and sought to extend his dominion over all Italy. But the popes now entered upon that Macchiavellian policy which they long incessantly pursued, of labouring to prevent a union of all Italy under one government, in order to secure for themselves the greater power in the midst of contending parties. This, with the disputes which arose concerning the succession to the Lombard throne, led to the downfall of the Lombard kingdom within no long time after it had reached its utmost greatness. The popes allied themselves with the Frankish kings, and Pepin, who had been anointed by Stephen II. to the patriciate,' i. e., the governorship of Rome, invaded Italy (754), and compelled the Lombard king Aistulf (749-754), who cherished the same ambitious designs as Liutprand, to refrain from further conquests, and even to give up some of the cities which had already yielded to his arms, which Pepin (755) bestowed upon the Roman Church and commonwealth. New causes of hostility between the Frank and Lombard monarchs arose when Charlemagne sent back to her father his wife, the daughter of the Lombard king Desiderius (754-774), and Desiderius supported the claims of the children of Carloman, Charlemagne's brother. In the autumn of 773, Charlemagne invaded Italy; and in May of the following year, Pavia was conquered, and the Lombard kingdom, after an existence of 206 years, was overthrown. In 776, an insurrection of some of the Lombard dukes brought Charlemagne again into Italy, and the dukedoms were broken down into counties, and the Lombard system, as far as possible, supplanted by that of the Franks. In 803, a treaty between Charlemagne, the western, and Nicephorus, the eastern emperor, confirmed the right of the former to the Lombard territory, with Rome, the Exarchate, Ravenna, Istria, and part of Dalmatia; whilst the eastern empire retained the islands of Venice and the maritime towns of Dalmatia, with Naples, Sicily, and part of Calabria. Compare Türk's Die Longobarden und ihr Volksrecht (Post. 1835); and Flegler's Das Königreich der Longobarden in Italien (Leip. 1851).

LOMBARDY, the name given to that part of Upper Italy which formed the nucleus' of the kingdom of the Lombards (q. v.). It consisted of the whole of Italy north of the peninsula, with the exceptions of Savoy and Venice, and after the fall of the Lombard kingdom, in 774, was incorporated

from the Frankish monarchy till 888. From this time it was ruled by its own kings till 961, when it was annexed to the German empire. Out of the wrecks of the old independent kingdom now arose a number of independent duchies, as Friuli, Mantua, Susa, Piedmont, &c., and soon afterwards the republics of Venice, Genoa, Milan, and Pavia. These republics consisted of one sovereign town, surrounded by, in many cases, a large extent of dependent territory. The Lombard cities declared themselves independent towards the commencement of the 12th c., and in 1167 were joined by their less powerful neighbours in the first Lombard league,' for the maintenance of their liberties, against Frederic Barbarossa, whom they severely defeated in 1176. In 1225, they were compelled to form the second Lombard league' against Frederic II., and with similar success. About this time, petty tyrants arose in most of the cities, and the country was distracted by internal dissensions, which were carefully fostered by France and Germany. These two great powers and Spain strove for the possession of Lombardy. The last succeeded in obtaining it in 1540, and held possession till about 1706, when after another dispute, the duchies of Milan and Mantua (the country bounded by the Ticino, Po, Mincio, and Switzerland), which alone now retained the name of L., came into the hands of Austria, and were designated 'Austrian Lombardy.' In 1796, it became part of the Cisalpine republic, but in 1815 was restored to Austria, and annexed politically to the newly-acquired Venetian territory under the name of the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom. This union was dissolved in 1859 by the Italian war; L. was given up to the new kingdom of Italy, Austria, however, retaining her Venetian territory. There is now no official division called L., the country having been parcelled out into the provinces of Bergamo, Brescia, Como, Cremona, Milan, Pavia, and Sondrio. Its total area was 8264 English square miles, with a population (1858) of 3,039,055.

The northern districts of L. are alpine in character, but the rest of the country is of extraordinary fertility, induced chiefly by the universal practice of irrigation. The country is celebrated for the products of its pasture-land, and as much as 50,000,000 lbs. of cheese is annually produced in the dairies of Lombardy. Agriculture is here in a more advanced state than in any other part of Italy, wheat, rice, and maize being the principal crops; melons, gourds, oranges, figs, citrons, pomegranates, peaches, plums, and other fruits of excellent quality, are largely produced. The numerous mulberry plantations form another prominent feature, and vines are extensively cultivated, though the wine produced from them is of inferior quality. Various kinds of marble, some of them of great beauty, form the chief item in the mineral products of L.; a few iron mines exist in Como and Bergamo. The chief manufactures are silk, cotton, and woollen goods, flax, paper, glass, and pottery; the annual value of the silk exceeds £3,000,000. Education is very generally diffused among the people, and they are well supplied with newspapers and scientific and literary journals.

LOMBOK, an island in that crescent group in the Malayan Archipelago known as the Sunda Íslands. It lies between Bali on the west, and Sumbawa on the east; lat. from 8° 12′ to 9° S., long. from 115° 44' to 116° 40′ E. Area estimated at 1480 square miles; pop. at 200,000, who are all Mohammedans. The north and south coasts are each traversed by a chain of mountains, some of which are volcanic, but

the interior is a fertile valley. Rice and cotton are largely cultivated, 20,000 tons of the former being exported annually. The capital is Mataram, the principal seaport, Ampanam.

LOMENTUM. See LEGUME.

LO'MOND, LOCH, the largest of the Scottish lakes, lies between Dumbartonshire on the west, and the counties of Stirling and Perth on the east. It is 24 miles long, is 7 miles broad at the southern extremity, though the northern half is only about a mile in width, and has an area of 45 square miles. Its depth varies from 60 to 600 feet, and its surface is only about 22 feet above the level of the sea. The waters of the loch are swelled by the contributions of many streams, the chief of which is the Endrick, from the south-east; the surplus waters are carried off by the Leven, an affluent of the Clyde. The lower portion of the loch is surrounded by a hilly but well-cultivated and finely wooded country, and the character of the scenery is in the highest degree rich and beautiful. Around the northern portion of the loch are piled high, wild, and picturesque masses of mountains-Ben Lomond on the east, and the Arrochar hills on the west. The surface is dotted over with numerous islands, which are finely diversified in their general appear ance, and contribute greatly to the exquisite beauty of the scene. Several steamers ply on the lake.

LO'MZA, a district town in the government of Augustovo, in Poland, on the left of the Narev, a tributary of the Vistula, and 85 miles north-east of Warsaw, played a prominent part in the history of Poland, but has never recovered from its sufferings during the Swedish wars. L. has a college, a gymnasium, an arsenal, and several paper-mills, and cloth and linen factories in its neighbourhood. Pop. 6043.

LONDON, the capital of the British empire, stands on both banks of the Thames, about 60 miles from the sea. The dome of St Paul's is in lat. 51° 30' 48" N., and in long. 5' 48" W. The river here varies from 900 to 1200 feet in width.

London, under the names Londinium, Londinum, and Augusta, was one of the chief stations of the Romans in Britain. They encircled a portion of what is now the City with a wall, which was rebuilt and extended in later ages. In Stow's time, the remains of the Norman or Anglo-Norman wall were about two miles in extent, from the Thames at the Tower to the Thames at Blackfriars. The great fire of 1666, and continual reconstructions in later ages, have nearly obliterated all traces of the old wall. The seven gates which pierced it are entirely gone, Temple Bar being merely one of the outer bars or suburban gates.

It is almost impossible to say what is the size of L., because there is no definite number of surrounding villages and parishes included within it. London within the walls,' the original City, comprises only 370 acres; 'London without the walls' comprises 230 acres; then there are the city of Westminster and the borough of Southwark; the Tower Hamlets,' comprising Bethnal Green, Whitechapel, Stepney, Mile End, Poplar, &c.; the northern suburbs of Marylebone, Pancras, Hampstead, Islington, Hackney, &c.; the western suburbs of Kensington, Chelsea, Fulham, Paddington, &c.; many parishes in the centre, but westward of the City; Bermondsey, Lambeth, Newington, Wandsworth, Rotherhithe, &c., in Surrey; and Deptford, Greenwich, and Lewisham, in Kent. The Post-office L. is larger than the Parliamentary L.; and the Police L. is larger than either. It is usual, however, now to take, as the limit of L., the area under the operation of the Metropolis Local Government Act,'

which is also adopted by the Registrar-general for the Census, and which is nearly identical with the area under the control of the Metropolitan Board of Works. This area contained, in 1851, 305,933 inhabited houses, and 2,362,236 inhabitants; and in 1861, 330,237 inhabited houses, and 2,803,034 inhabitants. In round numbers, the dimensions may be estimated at about 13 miles from east to west, and 9 from north to south; but the shape is very irregular; all that can be said relates to the area, which is 117 square miles. For Parliamentary purposes, L. constitutes eight boroughs-viz., City of London, Westminster, Southwark, Marylebone, Finsbury, Tower Hamlets, Lambeth, and Greenwich; the first sending four members, and the others two each. The Tower Hamlets alone contained 570,898 inhabitants in 1861. For Poor-law purposes, L is divided into 40 unions, in some cases single parishes, in others groups of parishes. The 'Metropolitan Buildings Act of 1855-which gives some kind of official control over the rauging of houses in streets, the removal of projections and sheds, the management of rebuilding and repairs, the compulsory repair of houses in a dangerous condition, &c.-divides the metropolis into 56 districts, of which 4 are in the City of L., 5 in the City of north of the Thames, and 17 south of the Thames. Westminster, 30 in other parts of the metropolis

Each of these has a district officer and a district surveyor.

The Thames at L. is crossed by the following Bridges, now (August 1863) either built or building: London Bridge, South-eastern Railway City Bridge, Southwark Bridge, Chatham and Dover Railway Bridge, Blackfriars Bridge, Waterloo Bridge, Charing Cross Railway and Foot Bridge, Westminster Bridge, Lambeth Bridge, Vauxhall Bridge, Pimlico Railway Bridge, Chelsea Bridge, Battersea Bridge, West London Railway Bridge, Putney Bridge, and Hammersmith Bridge. (The bridges at Barnes, Kew, and Richmond can scarcely be said to be within metropolitan limits.) Near and between these bridges are about 20 Steam-boat piers, for the accommodation of river-passengers. The Thames Tunnel forms a footway under the river, 1200 feet long, about two miles below London Bridge. For the accommodation of such shipping as cannot conveniently load and unload in the river, St Katharine's Docks, London Docks, Limehouse Docks, West India Docks, East India Docks, and Victoria Docks, have been formed on the northern shore; and the Commercial and Grand Surrey Docks on the southern. The part of the Thames just below London Bridge, called the Pool, is the great rendezvous for coal-ships; below that, as far as Blackwall, is the Port, occupied by ships of greater burden. Of Canals, the Paddington, Regent's, and Grand Surrey are the chief.

In matters of government, L. is under very varied jurisdiction. The lord mayor and corporation exercise peculiar powers in the City, in reference to tolls, dues, markets, the administration of justice, police, drainage, lighting, paving, and a variety of other matters. The City is divided into 25 Wards, each represented by an alderman; the aldermen are chosen for life, and are magistrates by virtue of their office. The Common Council consists of 206 members, who, with the lord mayor and aldermen, form a kind of parliament for the management of City affairs. The Mansion House and Guildhall are the chief buildings for the transaction of corporate business. The Metropolitan Commissioners of Police, and the Metropolitan Board of Works, have control over the whole metropolis except the City. Westminster and Southwark are each under local authorities, but only in minor matters. The Drainage is managed