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THE

which a continuous supply of hot water, or steam, or cane juice passes in a spray and saturates the expressed cane stalks or begass on passage

supplied from the cane juice heaters used in the manufacture of sugar, and the juice from the second mill may also be used for saturation by passing it through a juice heater and then to the supply pipes for saturating the begass before mentioned.

Improvements in apparatus employed in the washing and cleansing of wool and other fibres. J. Clough, Manchester Road, Bradford. November 30, 1874.-No. 4095. In conveying wool or other fibrous material (after being washed) from the washing bowl or trough to the squeezing rollers, a carrying fork is employed, operated by crank motion with balance wheel on the end of the shaft, and worked in a curved plate, the curve of which is suited to the movement the fork is desired to describe; this curve may be flatter or quicker according to the distance the squeezing rollers may be from that part of the bowl or trough where the wool is lifted by the last washing fork and placed upon the curved plate. The curve of this plate begins at the point where the wool is leaving the sud or wash liquor and continues upwards as far as is necessary to give the wool sufficient fall down an incline leading to the nip of the rollers, and so to pass it through the rollers. This curved plate has two sides or guards to prevent the wool from falling off it when being taken forward by the carrying folk to the rollers. Stationary holders are placed at the foot and on the top of the curved plate to retain the wool, when lifted from the bowl or trough and placed upon it, until the carrying folk working in the curve comes and takes such wool forward to the top of the inclined plane, and from whence it slides down to the nip of the rollers. There are holders called ratch tooth holders (by the teeth taking the form of ratch teeth). The head of the carrying fork which works in the curve is fixed upon a square part of the lower end of the "stalk," and is movable up and down it; an adjustable steel spring, being placed on the stalk above the head of the fork, gives way by compression according to the thickness of the body of wool which it may for the time be carrying, and by which it readily suits either a larger or a smaller amount of material under operation. The prongs of this fork are formed slightly rounded at the front part, running out conically to the back part.

Disincrusting and preventing the incrustations in steam boilers. J. B. Deluy, Naples, Italy. November 30, 1874.-No. 4108. My invention is an improvement on all the discoveries made until now; it is the result of my studies, and consists in a powder made out of one only vegetable produce pulverised, which I introduce in the boiler through the manhole when the supply of water is completed. My disincrusting powder, which I name "Disincrustant Marseillais," is neither a compound or a mixture, and it disincrusts, cleanses, clears out all deposit by spontaneous action. By the ebullition the incrustation is dissolved and goes out through the tap purger.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Terra Alba.-Is the article called terra alba made entirely from the ground alabaster of Derbyshire, or is there another kind of terra alba made or manufactured at the Salt or Acid Works of Newcastle or elsewhere in England? Assuming that it is also made at the Salt Works as well as at Derbyshire, is the former better in any way, and what is the price per ton laid down at Liverpool? Please give present market prices for the Derbyshire, and that which is manufactured at salt works or elsewhere. There is another article called pearl hardening which I do not wish confounded with the other, but would like the present market price of this also.-THOMAS MANNING.

WEDNESDAY, Jan. =

Zoological, 8.30.

Royal Institution, 3. "On the Classification of the Vertebrated Animals," by Prof. Garrod. 18th.-Meteorological, 7. (Anniversary).

Society of Arts, 8.

Geological, 8. "On some Unicellular Alga
Parasitic within Silurian and Tertiary
Corals, with a Notice of their Presence in
Calceola sandalina," by Prof. P. Martin
Duncan, F.R.S., V.P.G.S. "How Angle-
sey Became an Island," by Prof. A. C.
Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S. "On the Influence
of Various Substances in Accelerating
the Precipitation of Clay Dissolved in
Water," by William Ramsay.

THURSDAY, 20th.-Royal, 8.30.
Royal Institution, 3. "On the Chemistry of the
Non-Metallic Elements," by Prof. Gladstone.
Chemical, 8. "On Narcotine, Cotarnine, and
Hydro-cotarnine," by G. H. Beckett and Dr.
Wright. "On a Method of Estimating Bismuth
Volumetrically," by M. M. Pattison Muir.
London Institution, 7.

F

AY, 21st.-Royal Institution, 8. Weekly Evening Meeting. "The

Optical Deportment of the Atmosphere in relation to the Phenomena of Putrefaction," by Professor Tyndall, 9. SATURDAY, 22nd.-Royal Institution, 3. "On Excavations in Asia Minor," by R. P. Pullan.

A

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PYROLOGY; or, ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS BY THE BLOWPIPE. Gentlemen wishing to join the Class of Instruction now being given in this important Science are requested to communicate with Messrs. SPON, Scientific Publishers, Charing Cross, or with Messrs. GRIFFIN and Sons, 22, Garrick Street, Covent Garden.

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phenomena, observed by himself as well as by Mr. Edison; and he pointed out in what particulars the new spark is similar to some forms of electricity, and in what it appears to differ from the various known forms of that force. Like a true scientist, he pointed out that only such phenomena as every competent experimenter is able to verify at any time are worth consideration; and he spoke of the sources of illusion and delusion which misled Reichenbach, and afterwards others who asserted that they had verified his alleged discovery of the so-called odic force.

In 1871 Professor Houston published the description of some experiments* which bear, both in method and results, a partial resemblance to those by Mr. Edison. The original experiments, made with a Ruhmkorff induction coil, capable of throwing the induced spark six inches in free air, have now been repeated by Professors Houston and Elihu Thomson. The results are thus described by Professor Houston :

The induction coil was worked by means of an electropoin battery of ten cells coupled for an intensity of ten. The elements of each cell consist of a single plate of zinc placed between two plates of carbon. The available surface in each cell is about three by six inches. One pole of the battery was placed in metallic connection with a gas-pipe and the other in similar connection with a large insulated conductor. On working the interrupting break-piece a torrent of characteristic white sparks of condensed electricity passed between the platinum points

of the coil. Under these circumstances, that is, while the discharges were occurring between the points, sparks could be drawn from all metallic objects in the same room with the coil, or in adjoining rooms. The sparks were especially noticeable when metallic objects were approached to the gas- or water-pipes of the building, or to metallic surfaces in connection therewith, as in the case of the pneumatic trough, steam-engines, and boiler before mentioned. As already implied, actual contact between the gas- and water-pipes and one of the wires leading from the coil, was unnecessary, as distinct sparks were afforded by a stove in the same room, and from another in an adjoining room.

In order to test the suspected similarity between these sparks and those described by Mr. Edison, we submitted them to the tests proposed by him. We made a number of experiments and obtained the following general results,

viz.

First. The gold leaves of a delicate electroscope did not diverge on being brought into contact with metallic objects yielding the sparks, although in every case the sparks could be seen at the point of contact.

Second. The needle of a delicate astatic galvanometer was not sensibly deflected by the sparks, on an apparent current being caused to traverse the coils of the instrument.

Third. A small shred of cotton-wool was not sensibly attracted or repelled by objects from which the spark might be obtained.

Fourth. The so-called retroaction of the spark was distinctly observed. On looping a wire back on itself, a decided spark was seen at the point of contact made by the end of the wire with any portion of the wire itself. All the above results are in strict accordance with the known laws of electricity, as will appear hereafter. To still further compare these results with those obtained by Mr. Edison, we dispensed with the use of the induction coil, and employed an apparatus similar to that described by him, viz.,: An electro-magnet in connection with the battery already mentioned, the current of which was rendered intermittent by means of an ordinary interrupter. With this arrangement, a wire in contact with the core of the magnet yielded sparks having all the properties described by Mr. Edison.

From a careful reading of the published accounts of Mr.

* Journal of the Franklin Institute, June, 1871.

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Edison and Dr. Beard, it appears that the alleged discovery of a new force is based on their failure to obtain from the sparks indications of electrical charges or currents; or in other words, in the apparent absence of electric polarity. All the effects noticed, however, are readily explainable by reference to the presence of an instantaneous outgoing current, immediately followed by an incoming one, with the complete re-establishment of electrical equilibrium. When we bear in mind the enormous velocity of electrical currents of this character, probably some hundred thousand miles per second, we can readily understand that the flow and reversion of the current would take place in an exceedingly small fraction of a second; a space of time sufficient, were the current merely direct, to produce any decided divergence of the leaves of the electroscope or the needle of the galvanɔmeter. The presence of the inverse current, immediately following the direct current, would absolutely and necessarily prevent the exhibition of electrical polarity as exhibited in the motion of the electroscopes, galvanometers, and of similar instruments.

It is doubtless due to the fact that the direct and inverse currents are opposite in their effects, and therefore produce instantaneous electrical equilibrium, that Mr. Edison failed to obtain the characteristic twitching of frogs' legs or the discolouration of iodised paper; for, although these results would unquestionably follow an electric current in one direction, their presence would be masked by the opposite effects produced by the instantaneously following

inverse current.

currents, as above described, may be questioned; but when The possibility of the existence of the direct and inverse we bear in mind that the sparks can only be obtained by the interruption of the battery current, and that it is necessary to pass the battery current through a long coil of wire, conditions in every way favourable to the production of instantaneous induced or extra currents, the direct and the inverse currents follow as a matter of necessity; for the induced or extra currents in the coil of wire necessarily produce, in the core of the magnet and the metallic wire in connection therewith, an electrical current in one direction, instantaneously followed on the cessation of the induced or extra current, by a current in the opposite direction for the re-establishment of the electric equilibrium in the cores of the magnet.

that the induced current produced at the moment of making contact with the interrupter flows in the opposite direction to that produced on breaking the contact. This fact would in itself, exclusive of the above explanation, be sufficient to account for the production of inverse cnrrents in the core of the magnet, when the interruption of the battery current was sufficiently rapid. Dr. Beard admits that the phenomena may be referred to a somewhat similar explanation, but the value he attaches to his supposition may be judged from his subsequent adoption of the term "apolic force as a preferable term to "etheric force."

It is a fact well known to all versed in electrical science

It is matter of surprise to us that both Mr. Edison and Dr. Beard endeavoured by careful insulation to eliminate electricity or induction, since it is a recognised fact in in the apparatus employed by them the effects of induced electrical science that the more perfect the insulation the more decided the effects of induction, of which, perhaps, no better instance could be found than the care taken to thoroughly insulate the secondary coils in the induction on Ruhmkorff apparatus. In view of the above considerations, we feel warranted in the belief that all the phenonomena noticed by Mr. Edison and Dr. Beard are explainable by the presence of inverse electrical currents of considerable quantity, but comparatively small intensity, instantaneously produced at the making or breaking of the battery circuit.

There was noticed during the progress of our experiments with the induction coil the following curious phenomenon, which appears to us favourable to the explanations

NEWS

we have adduced. One of the poles of the coil was connected with a gas-pipe, and the other with an insulated conductor of considerable surface in the room containing the Ruhmkorff core. This room is in connection by a telegraph wire with the chemical laboratory on the floor below, and with an earth circuited station, D, in another building, about 500 feet distant in a direct line. On the interrupter of the coil being worked, a peculiar clicking sound was heard, by both of us in the line wite in the chemical laboratory. The operator at D was requested to observe whether any unusual phenomena were noticed at his instrument. He at once telegraphed to us that a distict "tinkling sound" was heard, which did not vary whether the ordinary battery current of the line was opened or closed. Since he did not know what to expect, his confirmation of our observation was very satisfactory. The production of the sound is probably referable to a rapid succession of molecular changes produced in the wire by the sudden reversion of its electrical states. Central High School, Philadelphia, December 11, 1875.

THE Science of physics reveals three procedures by which a reduction of temperature can be effected, ice being the result if the cooling is sufficiently intense and is applied to water. The methods in question are:-The solution of solids (salts); the spontaneous evaporation of liquids; and the expansion of aëriform bodies. Each of these methods has met with practical applications; the firstmentioned or solution-process for reducing the temperature of small mass in simple apparatus not acting continuously; the two others, evaporation and expansion, for the uninterrupted production of ice in complicated

machines.

I. Cold obtained by Solution.

Every mixture of substances in proportion as it produces, during solution, the greatest depression of temperature in its own mass is called a freezing mixture. Various mixtures of this kind have long been known, and may be found described in all text-books of physics. The best known and most commonly applied both in domestic and technical affairs pre-supposes the presence of ice. It consists of 3 parts of ice and I of common salt, which dissolve each other, whilst the the temperature falls to -21°, the freezing-point of a concentrated solution of chloride of sodium. The solution of a part only of the mixture is requisite to produce this low temperature in the entire mass. Not till heat penetrates from without into the mass does a further melting take place, the temperature remaining the same. Consequently the above degree of cold may be kept up till all the ice has been melted with the salt. It is necessary, however, to keep the mixture continually agitated. This snow and salt-freezing mixture is used in preparing ice-creams, for which a temperature of about 12° is required. As the essential point here is the congelation of water and the other substances present may be neglected, as far, at least, as their specific and latent heat is concerned, it is easy to calculate what weight of ice-cream may be prepared with a known quantity of freezing mixture.

--

The freezing apparatus of the confectioners consists of a tin vessel for receiving the ingredients, placed in a larger bath of wood or tinned copper. The interval is filled with ice and salt, which are constantly stirred that the mutual contact of the two may be perfect. If this is "Berichte über die Entwickelung der Chemischen Industrie Während des Letzten Jahrzehends."

neglected the salt, after a portion of the solution has been formed, sinks to the bottom and ceases to act upon the ice. Since about 1865 a freezing apparatus for domestic use has been introduced from Paris arranged as follows:A cylindrical pewter vessel with double sides is fitted in the middle of a jacket with two pivots, which rest upon two supports fixed in a block of wood. One of the pivots is prolonged so as to form a handle which serves to keep the cylinder in continual rotatlon. The two plane ends of the cylinder are disks of wood, which are pressed upon the cylinder by a peculiar arrangement, india-rubber rings being used to preserve complete tightness. The interval between the double sides of the cylinder is filled with a bad conductor of heat. A cone of pewter is introduced into the interior, and can be opened on one side to receive the materials for the ice-cream; the annular interstice is filled with salt and ice, which are introduced from the other side. The lid is put on, and the handle is turned for about five minutes. The lid of the cream receiver is then taken off, and the matter which has become deposited on its inner aides is scraped off with a spatula and stirred up with the still unfrozen residue to a butter-like consistence. The apparatus is closed again, turned for five minutes, opened again, and the contents stirred up as before-an operation which is repeated a third time. In a quarter of an hour the ice-cream is ready. The apparatus acts satisfactorily, but it is troublesome and rather costly. (To be continued.)

A STUDY OF HYDROCARBONS.
No. I.-THE CONSTITUTION OF ALIZARIN.
By S. E. PHILLIPS.

THERE are two methods by which we may approach this great subject:-One is to grapple with the minutiae of details, and thence to try and reduce the interminable chaos to some ordinal principles of classification; and thus it is that acids are grouped according to some ideas of monatomic, diatomic, and polyatomic peculiarities; and the same with alcohols; and between these are more neutral groupings of aldehyds, ketones, quinons, paraffins, olefines, &c., and each series with their corresponding primary, secondary, tertiary, and other subdivisions, while an immense cloud of hypothesis darkens the whole proceeding, and graphic, constitutional, and other efforts of atomic disposition are freely put in requisition, as if to reduce the void to some elements of classification.

This system may be profitably studied in the recent and very valuable works of Armstrong and Schorlemmer. Another, an older and simpler way, with far less of pretension and hypothesis, is to subordinate very much of all this minutiæ, and to aim at some general grasp of the whole principle of "radical" behaviours; so that, upon this solid basis, the minutiae of fact and experiment may supervene, to fill in the rugged outline, and stamp it with that quality of simplicity and beauty which-in all departments of human enquiry-is the polar star which both impels and rewards the highest efforts of human labour.

Nor let it be supposed that this aspect looks with coldness upon the Herculean efforts which are so ably summarised in the works referred to, which are published at a popular price out of all proportion to their intrinsic worth; nor should it be thought that we would lessen by one tittle these great efforts to ascertain the meaning of those isomeric or allotropic differences which now multiply at every step. But we do think it is high time that some safe guiding principle should be selected to harmonise the past and fructify the future.

The artificial production of the beautiful "Turkey-red" may well be looked upon as one of the proudest triumphs of modern chemistry; but to one who has closely watched the teeming memoirs and public lectures devoted to its