in the reverse direction for the re-establishment of elec THE CHEMICAL NEWS. trical equilibrium in the cores of the magnet, consequent VOL. XXXII. No. 857. ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA. THE ALLEGED ETHERIC FORCE. TEST EXPERIMENTS SINCE the experiments of Mr. Edison are still believed by some to demonstrate the existence of a force hitherto unknown, we submit the following conside considerations together with experiments, which we believe to be crucial in establishing the identity of the supposed new force with inverse currents of induced electricity. The alleged necessity for the assumption of the new force being based on its asserted lack of polarity, we propose to show how two opposite phases of the so-called new force may neutralise each other, thus conclusively establishing its polarity. In order to show that, in Mr. Edison's experiments, inverse electrical currents must necessarily exist, notwithstanding the fact that the manifestations occur only at the opening or breaking of the circuit, we will discuss his typical experiment in detail. In Fig. 1, we have the FIG. A K well-known arrangement for the production of the alleged new force. On the completion of the circuit, the battery current flows as shown by the arrows, and м becomes a magnet. On breaking the connection as at K, the socalled etheric force is manifested at the points P, in the dark box. It is evident that the above embraces all the essentials of Mr. Edison's experiments. When a battery current flowing through a considerable length of wire, is interrupted by breaking contact as at K, a bright spark of appreciable length is seen at the break (K). This spark is due to the extra current, and indicates a great increase of electrical tension in the wire, the discharge occurring through an appreciable air-space at K. It will be seen that the wire around the magnet is at the moment of breaking contact, charged with electricity of considerable tension (extra current), positive or negative, according to the direction of the battery current. In Fig. 1, since the magnet wire is connected with the positive pole c of the battery, the charge in the wire will be positive, and a negative charge will be accumulated on the general conducting surface of the battery, which thus acts in part to condense the negative charge. This state of tension at once disappears on the discharge of the extra current. The extra current is not produced until the circuit is broken, and its discharge takes place when the wires have been appreciably separated, as shown by the spark. At every break, therefore, the wire surrounding the core of the magnet accumulates a static charge of considerable tension, which is rapidly discharged. This charge, acting by induction on the core of the magnet, induces in it, and in all metallic masses in connection therewith, a flow or charge in one direction, while the tension in the wire is increasing, followed instantaneously by a flow or charge on the discharge of the wire itself, the wire and the cores of the magnets bearing the same relations to each other as the inner and the outer coatings of a Leyden jar. Here, then, we have all that is necessary for the production of the so-called etheric effects, apparent non-polarity included. In order to prevent the possibility of a charge of any tension remaining in the coils of wire on the interruption of the current, we arranged the following experiment:A battery of eight cells was divided into two sets of four cells each, as shown in Fig. 2. The sounder magnet M, FIG. 2 used in this experiment, was connected as shown, i.e., one end of the coils with the positive pole of the left hand battery, and the other end to the negative pole of the right hand one. An interrupter placed midway between the remaining poles of each battery furnished the neces sary breaks, as at K. Under these conditions we could obtain no appreciable spark in the dark box at P. In this experiment the magnet is placed so as to occupy the exact middle of the circuit, one-half the wire in the coils being influenced by that part of the extra current which produces a positive charge, and the other half by that which produces a negative one. When thus arranged the inductive effects of the extra current being equal and opposite, neutralise each other, and hence no inductive spark appears in the dark box P. In this experiment, thorough insulation of the batteries, key, and connecting wires, is necessary, in order to secure an equal division of the effective circuit. The absolute necessity for the equality of the two divisions of the circuit and of the neighbouring conducting surfaces, in the above experiment, is shown by connecting any part of the circuit with a conducting surface, as, for instance, a mass of metal, or even the body of the experimenter, when sparks at once make their appearance at P. The mere approach of the person, without contact with any conducting surface near to any part of the circuit, or to either of the batteries, is followed by a similar result. In this connection it is evident that any inequality in the metallic surroundings of the halves of the circuit is sufficient to cause irregularity in the results. So necessary is the equal division of the conducting surfaces, that even the use of an ordinary telegraphic key at K is sufficient to introduce unequal metallic surfaces into the circuit, and so derange the experiment, and we would therefore suggest that the breaks be made by the conducting wires themselves. If the battery be unequally divided, sparks are seen in abundance in the dark box. To test the question of the polarity of the alleged new force, the following experiment was devised:-The battery terminals were connected respectively with one end of the coils of the magnets M and M' which were exact counterparts of each other. The circuit was completed through the interrupter K, connected with the two remaining ends of the coils. Wires a and a' were provided for connecting the cores of the magnets with the dark box P, at pleasure. When the wire a was connected with P, sparks were seen in the dark box, in breaking the contact at K; similar sparks were seen where the wire from a' was alone connected. When both a and a' were connected with the dark box no spark could be obtained. In the foregoing experiment it is evident that the April 28, 1876. By WILLIAM ODLING, M.A., F.R.S. polarity of the extra current produced in м is the opposite | NOTE ON THE accompanying table presents the formulæ of thirtythree alcohols. Of these, eight only are expressed by four-line formulæ, the remainder by three-line and twoline formulæ. Moreover, in order to manifest the relationship of the several formulæ to one another, the majority of them are written more cumbrously than would suffice equally well to exhibit the constitution of the several alcohols individually. Thus the formula of the two primary butylic alcohols, or propyl-methol and pseudopropyl methol, would commonly be written (HO)H2C.C3H, and (HO)H2C.CH(CH3)2, corresponding to the formulæ for the butyric and isobutyric acids, HO2C.C3H7 and HO2C.CH(CH3)2, respectively. The formula for secondary butylic alcohol, or ethyl-methyl pseudol, would be written (HO) HC (C2H OC CH3 C2H5. ; both were connected no spark was obtained, it is clear corresponding to that of ethyl-methyl ketone— while the formula for tertiary butylic alcohol, or trimethyl C3H7T or - HC CH3 (CH3 (more commonly called isopropyl), and in a fifth only the homologous radical, pseudobutyl,or - HC CH -HC|C C2H5 That the non-appearance of the spark at P was due to an exact neutralisation of the two opposite phases of the "etheric force," is shown by bringing any conducting surface, as the finger, into contact with any part of the circuit, as at b or b', when sparks at once appeared at P. We found that it was not necessary to employ cores surrounded by coils of wire to produce the so-called etheric force. We note the following experiment :-A hollow cylinder of non-conducting material as a test-tube was covered on the outside with a sheet of metal. A metallic bar was placed inside the tube, and from it a wire was led to the dark box. On connecting the exterior metal surface with almost any portion of a long battery circuit, which was interrupted, sparks were seen in the dark box at every break. These sparks possess all the properties claimed for the "etheric" sparks. In this case no person at all familiar with electrical induction would for a moment question the true origin of the sparks and butane,— seen in the dark box. Metallic coatings are not necessary to produce the effects just described. In the following experiment we C4H2 the secondary radicals derivable from the normal paraffins, respectively. In the other two formulæ there occur re- C4H9 CH3 ог - H2C.CH CH3 (CH3 (CH3 C4H9* or -C CH3 derivable both from the iso-paraffin, CH3 HC CH3 (CH3 к replaced them by liquid surfaces :-In a tumbler partly It may be interesting to state that the foregoing experiments were thought out in accordance with the known laws of electricity, and the results fully confirmed our expectations. It is hoped that the foregoing experiments will have established still more decidedly the fact that all the manifestations classed as "etheric "are due solely to inverse currents of induced electricity. or isobutane. It is to be noticed that the formulæ for all the several alcohols are constructed on the type of the formulæ of the several paraffins, normal, iso-, neo-, and meso- respectively, from which the alcohols are formed by substitution of hydroxyl, OH, for hydrogen. The homologous iso-primary alcohols are derived from a typical iso-primary alcohol; and this typical iso-primary alcohol is derived from the normal secondary alcohol, as is the iso-paraffin from the normal paraffin :(CH2(OH) (CH3 from HC CH3 or (HO) HC CH CH3 (CH3 (CH3 PARAFFIN ALCOHOLS. CH,O. Methylic, and Normal primary Alcohols. C2H6O. C3H8O. C4H10O. H3C(OH) 66° H2C (OH CH3 78° (C H2(OH) HCC H3 109° 130° CH3 CH3 CsH120. H2C C3H6(OH) 137° ¡CH3 C2H4(OH) H (C H2(OH) O H C H2(OH) (C2H4(OH) HC C3H7 106° HC C3H7 120-30° HC CH3 CH3 C2H5 97° (CH3 HCC2H5 128° HC C2H5 (?) (CH3 C H3 он (O H (C H2(OH) HC C3H7 119° (CH HC C3H7 (?) CH3 Ο Η HC C4H9 137° (CH3 (CH2(OH) HC C2H5 117° (CH HC C2H5 Iso tertiary and Neo-Primary Alcohols. (C2H5 (O H HC C3H 135° он C CH3 82° C CH3 C H2(OH) (?) C CH3 (CH3 O H C (C2H5 The treatment to remove the excess of the salt of soda is the same as that described above; or the mixture may be directly neutralised with lime, the salt of lime decomposed by a salt of soda, sulphate or carbonate, and the sulphate of soda may be separated by crystallisation from the soda salts of the sulpho-conjugated acid. The disulpho-anthraquinonate of soda, heated with double its weight of potash, soda, or a mixture of the two alkalies, is transformed into alizarin.-Bull. Soc. Chim.de Paris. Except for the use in a perfectly definite sense, and in a few instances only, of the index letters 7, σ, and к, as above referred to, the whole of the thirty-three alcohols are expressed by comparatively simple formulæ, which manifest their constitution fully, in symbols intelligible, without any new convention, to everyone. NEW PROCESS FOR PREPARING SULPHOCONJUGATED ACIDS. By M. CH. GIRARD. THE preparation of sulpho-conjugated acids requires in most cases the use of fuming sulphuric acid, or of a mixture of such with common sulphuric acid concentrated to 66° B. The presence of the fuming or Nordhausen acid is necessary to obtain disulpho conjugated compounds, and those of a higher degree. We may replace with advantage-both as regards cost, facility of working, and amount of yield-the Nordhausen acid with anhydrous bisulphate of soda, either alone or mixed with variable quantities of the ordinary sulphuric acid of commerce. One of the chief advantages of the anhydrous bisulphate of soda lies in its mode of decomposition during the reaction, which has the effect of gradually setting at liberty anhydrous sulphuric acid. The author has prepared, by heating under pressure, and at temperatures varying according to the nature of the substance to be obtained, a mixture of anhydrous bisulphate of soda, concentrated sulphuric acid of commerce, and carbides of the aromatic series, such as benzin, toluen, xylen, and their homologues, naphthalin, anthracen, phenol, cresylol, quinons, and anthraquinons; with alkaloids such as aniline, diphenylamin, and their homologues, the operation may be performed at the ordinary pressure. To obtain the disulpho-conjugated acids of benzin he heats under pressure for four hours to 200° to 250° a mix ture of Crystallisable benzin 10 kilos. 15 25 39 Anhydrous sulphate of soda Commercial sulphuric acid .. The excess of the salt of soda may be removed either by exhausting with 3 or 4 litres of alcohol, or by letting the mass drain exposed to the air; the sulpho-conjugated acids being deliquescent, flow away, whilst the salt of soda remains in the funnels in a crystalline state. The excess of sulphuric acid is easily removed by neutralising with lime, filtering, and evaporating. To prepare the salt of soda he employs either the sulphate of soda collected or the carbonate of soda, filtering to separate the calcareous precipitate. The solution, evaporated to dryness, yields the soda salt, which latter, on heating to 240° with double its weight of potash, yields resorcin. To obtain the sulphoconjugated acids of anthracen or of anthraquinon he heats under pressure between 260° and 270° for five to six hours, at 66° B. REPORT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEMICAL ARTS (Continued from p. 167.) SUCH machines have been recently made by Eigel and Lesemeister, of Cologne. The duty of a machine of the kind described must, on the supposition that the sulphuric acid expended is recovered by means of concentration, be estimated at a very high rate. From a calculation which certainly was only approximate it would appear that 17 kilos. of ice are produced per 1 kilo. coal used in concentrating the acid. If, in the continuous action of the apparatus, the concentrated acid running off could completely exchange its heat with the dilute acid to be introduced, the effect would be greater by one-third. This result considerably exceeds that of the ammonia machine. The manufacture of ice on this principle would offer certain advantages if the apparatus were differently arranged, since in its present form it is not suitable for lump ice. Perhaps instead of pure water a saline solution might be evaporated, which would be cooled down far below zero, and into which, as in other machines, vessels containing water might be plunged, and the latter might thus be indirectly frozen. The air-pump would require to be put in action only once in order to exhaust the air of the internal space. To open it would be needless, since the sulphuric acid can be introduced, and removed by means of pumps. III. Production of Cold by Expansion. If a gas is compressed the mechanical power applied is converted into heat and the temperature rises. If equal volumes of different gases at a similar initial pressure are compressed to the same extent, a gas of lower specific heat increases in temperature more than one of higher specific heat, and that in a potentiated manner since its particles, in the first place, assume a higher temperature by an equal increment of heat, and secondly, since the hotter gas possesses a greater tension and opposes more resistance to compression, whence more heat is evolved. Different gases of equal initial temperature and tension, when compressed to an equal volume, not only attain unequal temperatures, but unequal pressure. The followng table shows in what proportion atmospheric air of mean tension increases in temperature if compressed at an initial temperature of 20° C. If a hot compressed gas is allowed to re-expand, always under full pressure, the heat is transformed into mechanical power, and a fall of temperature ensues in the same measure as the rise during its compression. If a hot and compressed gas is cooled down and then expanded, it falls below the initial temperature, and very great degrees of cold can be attained. Thus air at 2, 3, 4 atmospheres, cooled down to 30° C., and allowed to expand to 1 atmo "Berichte über die Entwickelung der Chemischen Industrie Wa.. -end des Letzten Jahrenends." sphere yields respectively the temperatures of -25°, -53°, -70° C. It is pre-supposed that the air, like steam in an engine, works outwardly; if it rushes into an empty space the temperature of the whole mass experiences no change, since the heat lost by the initial expansion is reproduced by the impact of the molecules against the sides of the vessel. If the air drives before it a pressure smaller than corresponds to its own tension, e.g., if, having been strongly condensed in a receiver, it escapes into the open air its fall in temperature is less than as stated above. On these principles depends the application of air to the production of cold and the preparation of ice. (To be continued) PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. CHEMICAL SOCIETY. Professor ANDREWS, F.R.S., in the Chair. been read the third time. The first paper, "On the Manufacture of Sulphuric Anhydride," by Dr. R. MESSEL and Dr. W. SQUIRE, was read by the latter. The speaker, after giving a sketch of the history of the manufacture of sulphuric acid, described their process for preparing the anhydride. The vapour of ordinary sulphuric acid is passed through a white-hot platinum tube, whereby it is almost completely decomposed into water, oxygen, and sulphurous anhydride: the mixed gases, after passing through a leaden worm to condense the greater portion of the water, are completely dehydrated in a leaden tower filled with coke, over which a stream of concentrated sulphuric acid is allowed to trickle. The dry mixture of oxygen and sulphurous anhydride is now passed through platinum tubes heated to low redness, and containing fragments of platinised pumice, when the gases re-combine to form sulphuric anhydride, which is condensed in a series of Woulffe's bottles, these Dr. Odling's system did not provide names. He considered Schorlemmer's arrangement of the paraffins unsatisfactory and unscientific, and in its place he would propose to divide them into three groups, represented by the general formulæ CH2(CnH2n+1)2; CH(CnH2n+1)3 ; and C(CnH2n+1)4 respectively, the various members of which could be distinguished by the letters of the Greek alphabet in the manner before explained. He desired to see some system of nomenclature which would not only serve to distinguish isomeric compounds, but would assimilate the different series as much as possible. The one he had proposed served to indicate the position which the isomeric compounds occupied with reference to their physical properties. Dr. ODLING said that he had, in the first place, to express both his appreciation of the friendly tone of Dr. Armstrong's criticism, which he would endeavour to imitate in his reply, and also his obligation to him for bringing the subject forward. He objected himself to Dr. Armstrong's proposal, that it dissociated strictly analogous alcohols by assigning to them a difference of prefix, whilst it associated with one another by an identity of prefix alcohols of the most diverse character, normal and iso- primary, secondary, and tertiary. It moreover dissociated the alcohol from the acid and paraffin into which it was oxidisable and reducible, by a difference of prefix, and accorded a common prefix to those which were not so related to one another. He considered the arrangement of isomeric bodies according to their boilingpoints to be inapplicable in the case of isomerides, including (say) aldehyds, ketones, olefine alcohols, olefine ethers, olefine oxides, &c., without prior classification of the isomerides according to their several characters, and similarly with regard to normal and iso- primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols. He objected, further, that any seeming consistency in Dr. Armstrong's seriation of alcohols was dependent on this seriation being conducted according to a special artificial system which it was assumed would coincide with the seriation by boiling-points; but which he (Dr. Odling) contended would not accord, unless, for example, the relationship between similar primary butyl and propyl derivatives were reversed in the case of secondary butyl and propyl derivatives, and unless, whilst some alcohols differed from their progenitors in boilingpoint by about 20° C., other alcohols-derived in precisely the same way-differed from their progenitors in boilingpoint by about 40° C. For his own part he considered that the aẞy system of notation was applicable only as a temporary expedient in the case of compounds in the course of being assimilated into the body of investigated and systematised substances. He believed Dr. Armstrong's formulæ for the alcohols to be confusing, in respect of the number and variety of indices employed; to be cumbrous out of proportion to the information afforded with regard to any particular alcohol; and to fail in indicating the close mutual relationship of some, and the great mutual alienation of other iscmeric alcohols. Dr. ARMSTRONG remarked that the authors had spoken He further objected to Dr. Armstrong's proposal with reof the Nordhausen acid as a solution of sulphuric anhy-gard to the nomenclature of isomeric acids. To designate dride in sulphuric acid, but it was in reality a definite these acids as primary, secondary, and tertiary, was to compound, which yielded definite salts and also a cor- use the above epithets in an entirely different sense from responding chloride. It might perhaps be called pyrothat in which they are applied to alcohols. In this last sulphuric acid. sense all acids are primary, and their varieties are dependent on the variety of paraffin from which they are derived; moreover, inconvenience would result from referring the alcohols to a mono-carbon alcohol, and the acids to a dicarbon acid. As regards his own proposals, Dr. Odling contended that the reference of the known paraffins to four types was perfectly well established, and that any familiar mode of designating the different isomeric paraffins should indicate to which of these classes the paraffin belonged, and that any prefix such as "iso" applied to the members of some one class of these paraffins should be confined exclusively to them, and to their derived alcohols, aldenyds, acids, &c. He recognised fully that any paraffin of of a more complex class might be formulated The CHAIRMAN thanked the authors, and, in allusion to a remark of theirs on the difficulty of condensing sulphuric anhydride when mixed with air, said that, in the case of a mixture of equal volumes of air and carbonic anhydride, the latter did not condense even at a most enormous pressure, but on lowering the temperature to o° C. the carbonic anhydride was condensed. In reply to an observation by Mr. Spiller, Dr. SQUIRE said the Nordhausen acid made in Bohemia was of two strengths, but all the samples he had examined had a sp. gr. considerably below 1900. The adjourned discussion on Dr. Armstrong's paper, "On Systematic Nomenclature," was then proceeded with. The AUTHOR said he might perhaps be allowed to make a few additional remarks. At the last meeting he had scarcely been able to do justice to Dr. Odling's paper, chiefly from want of diagrams 1'illustrate it. These he had now prepared, and from an inspection of them it would be evident that in the highest series there would be several isomeric, iso-, neo-, and meso-parafins, and for |