was one elective course on "agricultural experimentation" and in senior year on soil physics. Lectures were supplemented by practice in the laboratory and on the college farm. There were laboratories for agricultural physics and mechanical analysis of soils, and a soils laboratory containing considerable special apparatus, soil samples, etc. The college farm had over 250 acres devoted to grasses, roots, cereals, forage crops and pasture. There was a large collection of modern types of implements and machines.

At the Department of Agriculture of the University of Minnesota agronomy was taught in the secondary school of agriculture and in college courses. In the first two years of the college course the sciences related to agriculture were taught. The technical agricultural subjects were mainly elective in junior and senior years. The college course in agronomy included soil physics, field crops, and seed and plant breeding. Instruction in soil physics was given in the divisions of agricultural physics and agricultural chemistry, and the rest of the course was given mainly by the professor of agriculture.

There was a special laboratory for work on seeds and plant breeding, Lantern slides were extensively used, together with maps and designs of farm plans. Collections of dried weeds, grasses and forage plants, and seeds were made for the use of students. Much farm machinery was available on the college farm and the vicinity. About 150 acres were devoted to college and station work. The plantbreeding experiments were extensive and involved the use of special machinery. Students assisted in these experiments. Farms in the vicinity served as a basis for designing farm plans and working out problems in farm management. Instruction was almost entirely by lectures. Students were required to write theses.

At the Industrial College of the University of Nebraska in freshman year all courses were required, but after that the courses were mostly elective. Agronomy courses included "soils, field crops, farm management and the care and use of farm machinery." There were general courses on soils and field crops, followed by a laboratory course on the properties of soils and elective courses on methods of investigation with soils and with crops, plant food in the soil (with a series of pot experiments), production and movement of crops as affecting prices, and sugar-beet culture. Instruction was carried on by lectures and laboratory practice, and through the use of reference books and experiment station literature. There were special laboratories for field crops, soils, and seeds. About 50 acres of land were used for purposes of instruction, in addition to the extensive experimental fields.

At the College of Agriculture and Domestic Science of Ohio State University the course in agronomy was preceded in the freshman and sophomore years by instruction in agricultural chemistry, physiology, economic botany, plant pathology, and horticulture. The courses in agronomy were given by the professor of agriculture and the instructor in agronomy and included two elementary courses in junior year and two advanced elective courses in senior year. There was first an elementary course in soils. This included lectures and recitations on the origin, formation, kinds, and physical properties of soils and their improvement by cultivation, fertilization, drainage, and irrigation. There were laboratory practicums once a week

on physical properties of soils and mechanical analyses. The elementary course in farm crops dealt in a similar way with the history, production, cultivation, harvesting, and marketing of farm crops, and there were practicums with growing and dried specimens of grasses, clovers, and other forage crops. The advanced course in soils consisted of lectures and recitations once a week on the physical properties of soils; the relation of soils to heat, air, and moisture; the effect of fertilizers on soil structure and fertility; and consideration of practical methods of tillage, as affecting the crop-producing power of the soil. There were laboratory and field experiments during two periods each week. The advanced course in farm crops dealt similarly with the effect of climate, soil, and markets on the distribution and adaptation of farm crops in the United States, the best methods of crop production, and the consumption of farm crops, with practicums twice a week. The soil-physics laboratory was equipped with special apparatus, much of which had been devised at the college. There was also a large glasshouse with tracks, trucks, and pots for tests with soils and fertilizers. Mechanical analyses of typical soils were made. In the study of crops use was made of dried specimens and a grass garden. Observations and studies were also made on the college farm.

At the College of Agriculture of the University of Illinois, of 130 credits required for graduation 15 were required to be in agronomy. and there were also elective courses in that subject. In the department of agronomy 15 courses were offered (not including those in farm mechanics) in drainage and irrigation, farm crops-quality and improvement, farm crops germination and growth, special crops, field experiments, soil physics and management, special problems in soil physics, soil bacteriology, fertilizers, rotations and fertility, investigation of the fertility of special soils, history of agriculture, comparative agriculture, German agricultural readings, special work in drainage and machinery, investigation and thesis. The department of agronomy had four principal divisions-soil fertility, soil physics, soil bacteriology, and farm crops. Instruction was by the laboratory method as well as by textbooks, lectures, and reference readings. Two well-equipped laboratories were provided for work in soil fertility, an analytical laboratory and a pot-culture laboratory in a greenhouse. There were also two laboratories for soil bacteriology and two for work on farm crops. Several acres of land were devoted to plat experiments by the students. In the department of agronomy there were six regular instructors, besides several student assistants.

The number of teachers and investigators in the field of agronomy grew rapidly during the early years of the twentieth century. According to Carleton, in 1900 there were 3 agronomists at the landgrant colleges, in 1905 there were 50, and in 1908 there were 99. That year about as many more were employed in the United States Department of Agriculture. These technical workers, in a field. which by that time was fairly well defined, formed the American Society of Agronomy on December 31, 1907. The two great divisions of the subject were represented in the choice of the principal officers. M. A. Carleton, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, who dealt with farm crops, was elected president, and Thomas L. Lyon, who in

1906 had been made professor of soil technology at Cornell University, was elected secretary. Through its proceedings, which were published in four volumes (1909-1912), and its journal, issued continuously since that time, this society has contributed much toward the systematization of agronomy and the classification and development of its various divisions. At its meetings there have been a considerable number of papers and discussions on courses of study and the progress of the science as shown in the technical papers has suggested many items which have been incorporated in the later courses of study in this field.

During this period the study of soils was profoundly affected by the physical researches of such investigators as King and Whitney and by the development of soil bacteriology. This led to the classification of soils on a much broader basis than had been attempted by the geologists and chemists. The elaboration of soil surveys and the beginning of conducting them on a nation-wide plan stimulated interest in soil work on the part of both teachers and students. The revival of the Mendelian theory gave greatly increased interest to the study of plant breeding. Studies of methods of conducting plat experiments (such as ear-row plantings and the centgener method), devices for seed testing, the development of a system of seed inspection, the treating of seeds and plants to prevent diseases, the devising of methods and score cards for the judging of grain are examples of the things by which the programs of courses on farm crops were improved and enriched.

HORTICULTURE AND BOTANY

In the early days of the agricultural colleges the work in botany was often organically associated with that in horticulture. The first of the colleges to develop horticulture as a separate subject were those in Michigan (1867), New York (1874), Ohio (1876), and Iowa (1876). As research and instruction in plant physiology and pathology developed, the relations between courses in botany and horticulture became in some respects more intimate; even though work in these lines was given in separate departments. This intimacy was recognized in the Association of Agricultural Colleges when in 1892 a section on horticulture and botany was established. For several years this section dealt principally with subject matter relating to plant pathology. However, in 1895 the section was represented in the general session of the association by a paper on the teaching of horticulture. From this and the discussion which followed it appeared that only in a few colleges was there much laboratory or practical work connected with the courses in horticulture. Interest in practice work in laboratories, greenhouses, and fields was promoted by this section during the next few years by papers describing what was done in some States. In the general course in agriculture proposed by the committee on instruction in agriculture in 1897 horticulture and forestry were allotted 180 hours. In 1902 the report of the section on horticulture and botany showed that in most of the colleges horticultural instruction began with the sophomore year and that there was a decided movement to

emphasize laboratory and field work and "to replace the lecture with the practicums."

A committee of this section reported in 1905 in favor of dividing the 180 hours assigned to horticulture in the general agricultural course proposed by the committee on instruction in agriculture as follows: Propagation 20, pomology 50, olericulture 50, floriculture 30, landscape horticulture 30. They also advised that the study of horticulture should begin before the senior year in order to give opportunity to take advantage of elective courses in that subject, most of which were given in the last two years.

A schedule for a horticultural course, parallel with that in general agriculture, was also given. This provided 270 hours of botany, equally divided between the first three years, 175 hours of electives in senior year, and horticulture as follows: Sophomores, propagation, 60 hours; juniors, pomology, 120; olericulture, 120; seniors, pomology, 80; floriculture, 75; landscape gardening, 60; forestry, 40. A table was presented, showing the number of required and elective hours in horticulture in nine colleges. The required hours varied from none at the New York college to 266 in Massachusetts. The aggregate number of hours of electives in the different colleges were as follows: New York, 360; Illinois, 900; California, 180; Michigan, 430; Pennsylvania, 342; Missouri, 162; Massachusetts, 638; Ohio, 450; New Hampshire, 270.

The statistics of the land-grant colleges show that in 1903 there were in the separate horticultural courses of four years 539 students, and in short courses 367. For some reason the number of students specializing in horticulture declined for several years, and in 1909 there were 158 in the 4-year courses and 233 in short courses. Then the number began to rise again, and in 1911 there were 243 in the 4-year courses and 565 in short courses.

As specialization proceeded in the agricultural colleges separate departments of horticulture were provided, and during the period now under consideration professorships were created for different branches of horticulture. Pomology most commonly received this recognition. The Massachusetts Agricultural College established a division of horticulture with separate departments of pomology, floriculture, and landscape gardening.

Relatively little attention was given to instruction in vegetable growing prior to 1908, though Bailey's Principles of Vegetable Gardening, the first textbook on this subject for college students, appeared in 1901. In 1908 "there were not more than four or five vegetable specialists in the colleges." From that time interest in this subject increased. "In 1912 five institutions offered for 4-year students as many as three to five courses in vegetable gardening, 9 offered two courses, and 21 offered single courses."

When investigations in plant pathology led to the invention of practical methods of control of plant diseases through spraying, seed treatment, etc., much attention was often given to these matters in connection with courses in horticulture, though the broader and more technical phases of this subject were usually treated in the department of botany or one of its subdivisions.

În 1887 Joseph C. Arthur began service at Purdue University as professor of vegetable physiology and pathology.

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FORESTRY

As late as 1897 the only instruction in forestry in American colleges consisted of lectures on dendrology and forest geography in connection with courses in botany and similar work, together with some practical matters connected with the growing of ornamental trees and farm wood lots, in horticultural courses.

The first professional school of forestry was established at Cornell University in 1898, and about the same time the private school at Biltmore, N. C., was organized. The following year the Pinchot family endowed the Forest School in connection with the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale University. Meanwhile the National Government had entered on the policy of making reservations of large areas of public land for forests and parks, and these reserves were administered by the Department of the Interior.

The United States Department of Agriculture, through its forestry division under B. E. Fernow and later Gifford Pinchot, was broadly stimulating interest in the study of forest problems. By 1900 there were State offices for forest work in 13 States. The American Forestry Association, with the Secretary of Agriculture, James Wilson, as president, was in active operation. That year some instruction in forestry was reported from land-grant and other colleges in 39 States.

At the meeting of the Agricultural College Association in 1905 a resolution was passed urging "that the national forestry policy of this country should include provision for education and experimentation in forestry by the agricultural colleges and experiment stations of the different States and Territories" (499).

In 1905 the management of the national-forest reserves was transferred from the Department of the Interior to the Department of Agriculture, and the Bureau of Forestry became the Forest Service. Under the broad conservation policy of President Roosevelt the area of the national forests was greatly increased. Considerable areas of private forests were also put under management recommended by the Forest Service. While in 1898 the division of forestry employed only 11 persons, of whom 2 were professional foresters, in 1905 the employees of the Forest Service numbered 821, of whom 153 were professional foresters, and in 1909 there were 2,012 employees. There were also many persons employed in forestry work in other ways.

One result of this expansion of forestry work was much greater interest in forestry instruction in educational institutions. Students flocked into the forestry classes in order to prepare themselves for civil-service examinations or other opportunities for work in this line. Whereas in 1907 the reports of the land-grant colleges showed 114 students in 4-year courses in forestry and 79 in short courses, in 1911 there were 449 in the long courses and 411 in the short courses. The civil-service examinations for the Forest Service helped to set standards for the courses in forestry in the colleges. Further effort in this direction was made at a conference held in Washington in 1909, in which 15 universities and colleges participated. A committee, of which Henry S. Graves was chairman, formulated a plan for the standardization of education in forestry and made a report at a second conference in 1911. It soon appeared that thorough profes