large body of the enemy; whereupon the French retired into an intrenched camp lined with three hundred pieces of cannon. He then ordered an assault, and the enemy began to waver, when the arrival of a new body of men turned the day against him.

ACT FIFTH.

Scene I.

29. a cardinal's degree:-Beaufort's preferment to this rank having happened about fifteen years back, it may seem strange that Exeter should now for the first time wonder at it as something new. This, however, is quite in keeping with other things here, such as the alleged youth of the King, who was at this time twenty-three years old. The point is thus stated by Coleridge: "The history of our ancient kings-the events of their reigns, I mean-are like stars in the sky; whatever the real interspaces may be, and however great, they seem close to each other. The starsthe events-strike us and remain in our eye, little modified by the difference of dates."

Scene III.

1. [Pucelle.] The manner in which the writer of this play delineates this Joan of Arc in Act I. has been held to be one of the proofs that Shakespeare was not the author. "But," observes Knight, "however the dramatist may have represented this extraordinary woman as a sorceress, and made her accuse herself of licentious conduct, he has fallen very far short of the injustice of the English chroniclers, who, no doubt, represented the traditionary opinions of the English nation."

6. The monarch of the north was Zimimar, one of the four principal devils invoked by witches. The north was supposed to be the particular habitation of bad spirits. Milton assembles the rebel angels in the north.

30. [La Pucelle is taken.] The capture of Joan occurred in May, 1430, twelve years before the event of the first Scene of this Act, and more than five years before the death of Bedford, and while Burgundy was yet in alliance with the English. The latter undertaking to reduce the city of Compeigne, Joan went with an army to raise the siege. On the march she met and routed a force of Burgundians, and, having taken Franquet, their leader, had

him beheaded on the spot. Reinforcements pouring in from all sides, she was soon forced to retreat, herself taking the rearguard, and repeatedly turning upon the pursuers, and keeping them off; till, at last, her men being broken, she was pulled from her horse by an archer, and, lying on the ground, surrendered herself. The heroine was then conducted to John of Luxemburg, who some months after sold her into the hands of the regent.

62-64. As plays, etc. :-This comparison, made between things sufficiently unlike, is intended to express the softness and delicacy of Lady Margaret's beauty, which delighted, but did not dazzle; which was bright, but gave no pain by its lustre. Sidney, in his Astrophel and Stella, supports this explanation:

"Lest if no vaile these brave gleams did disguise,
They, sunlike, should more dazzle than delight."/

Scene IV.

74. Machiavel:-The character of Machiavelli seems to have made so very deep an impression on the dramatic writers of the age, that he is many times introduced by them, notwithstanding the anachronism. So in The Valiant Welshman, 1615: "Read Machiavel; princes that would aspire must mock at hell.”

66

92, 93. consume to ashes, etc. :-Joan of Arc was burnt, as an agent of the devil," at Rouen, May 30, 1431. The inhuman sentence was the result of an ecclestiastical trial, at which the Bishop of Beauvais presided, she having been taken in his diocese. Yet the violence of her enemies was not so cruel as the neglect of those who ought to have been her friends. The matter is thus stated by Lingard: "If ever prince were indebted to a subject, Charles VII. was indebted to Joan of Arc. She had dispelled the terror with which success had invested the English arms, had reanimated the courage of the French soldiery, and had firmly established the King on the throne of his ancestors. Yet, from the moment of her captivity she appears to have been forgotten. We read not of any sum offered for her ransom, or attempt made to alleviate the rigour of her confinement, or notice taken of her trial and execution."

175. a solemn peace:-This peace, which was in reality but a truce, was negotiated by Suffolk, who had been sent as ambassador for that purpose, an instrument having been first signed by the King and approved by the Parliament, authorizing him to conduct

the treaty to the best of his abilities, and pardoning beforehand every error of judgement into which he might fall. The meeting of ambassadors was at Tours in February, 1444; where many things were moved for a final peace, but the best they could come to was a truce for eighteen months.

Scene V.

25-29. So should I give, etc.:-" Although this mariage," says Holinshed, "pleased the King and diverse of his councell, yet Humfrie Duke of Glocester, protector of the realme, was much against it, alledging that it should be both contrarie to the lawes of God, and dishonourable to the prince, if he should breake that promise and contract of mariage, made by ambassadours sufficiently instructed thereto, with the daughter of the Earle of Arminacke, upon conditions both to him and his realme as much profitable as honourable. But the duke's words could not be heard, for the earles dooings were onelie liked and allowed." 103. Suffolk goes:-Suffolk set forth on this expedition in October, 1444. Thus stands the account in Holinshed: "The Earle of Suffolke was made Marquesse of Suffolke, which marquesse, with his wife and manie honourable personages of men and women, richlie adorned both with apparell and jewels, having with them manie costlie chariots and gorgeous horslitters, sailed into France for the conveiance of the nominated queene into the realme of England. For King Reiner, hir father, for all his long stile, had too short a pursse to send his daughter honourablie to the King hir spouse."

Questions on 1 Henry VI.

1. What are some of the contemporary allusions to this play that help to establish its date?

2. What are some of the arguments against the sole Shakespearian authorship of the play?

3. Who have been suggested as collaborators?

ACT FIRST.

4. What is there un-Shakespearian about the opening lines of the play?

5. How are events of the preceding play, Henry V., continued in this one?

6. Criticise the manner in which the news brought by the messengers is delivered. Is it compatible with reality?

7. What is the situation presented in the first Scene? What offices are held respectively by Bedford and Gloucester? What threat is made by Winchester?

8. What is the condition of the French fortunes when Joan la Pucelle appears?

9. What traits of character are here attributed to her that are at variance with the Joan of tradition?

10. Indicate the effect of Sc. ii. In what way does it contribute to the development of the plot? How does it differ from the account given by the old chroniclers?

II. From Sc. iv. what do you gather of Talbot's reputation? What traits of character does he display?

12. What is there un-Shakespearian about the battle-scene? 13. What effect does the dramatist wish to produce by bringing Joan into personal conflict with Talbot?

14. What was the contemporaneous opinion of the English concerning the secret of Joan's military success?

ACT SECOND.

15. Are the events presented in Sc. i. historically true?

16. How does the episode of the Countess of Auvergne (Sc. ii.) illustrate the weak side of Talbot's nature?

17. Comment on the dramatic effectiveness of Sc. iii. Is the matter reported in the chronicles? Has it any literary precedent? Is the plot in any way assisted by it?

18. Sc. iv. has been regarded of undoubted Shakespearian authorship. What do you see in it to support the view?

19. What was the point of dispute between Plantagenet and Somerset? Where has Shakespeare presented a picture of the condemnation of Richard Earl of Cambridge?

20. Who was the Mortimer presented in Sc. v.? What previous plays have dealt with him?

21. Considered as an episode, what is the effect of Sc. v.? Considered structurally, is this Scene a necessary part of the present play? Is its value more apparent from a consideration of the series of plays dealing with the Henrys?

22. What does Sc. v. contribute to the enveloping atmosphere of Henry VI.?

ACT THIRD.

23. What is the dramatic purpose of the quarrel between Winchester and Gloucester in Sc. i.? In this Scene how are the fortunes of Plantagenet advanced?

24. In the speech of Exeter with which the Scene closes what is foreshadowed?

25. Was the taking of Rouen by the French through strategy an historic fact?

26. Explain Joan's taunt (ii. 44) that the corn was full of darnel. 27. What is lacking in the presentation of the cowardice of Sir John Fastolfe to support the belief that he is Shakespeare's creation?

28. What is Joan's status among the French at the point of the story marked by Sc. iii.?

29. Is her persuasion of the Duke of Burgundy convincing? What point of the rising action does this Scene mark?

30. Show what is effected by Sc. iv.