guard, into the Valley of Jehoshaphat, a difficult defile which the Jews had been wise enough to beset with an ambush, so that when Titus and his suite entered the place, thinking to reconnoitre the city in safety, they were attacked by numbers, and must have been overpowered but for the heroic fortitude with which each man conducted himself, enabling the Roman general to cut his way through, and join the body of his main supports. After this the siege of the city was regularly made; camps were formed at the various vantage-points, and preparations were made for carrying on the usual siege operations of the Romans. While so much determination was manifested on the part of the enemy, scarcely less was shown by the assailed Jews, who prepared for heroic resistance. No occasion was lost, so long as the siege was not a close one, of attacking the posts of the enemy, and in some of the encounters the Romans, ignorant of the nature of the ground, suffered severely-once the camp of a legion was nearly taken. With a courage that has been rarely equalled, the Jews resisted their mighty foe, though it is to be observed that the factions which prevailed in the city did not diminish in intensity of hatred, even in the presence of the Romans. Daily fights between the rivals for the mastery took place inside the city, and hundreds of lives were lost that, if sacrificed at all, should have been sacrificed in the common

cause.

By degrees, the military engines of the Romans-the battering ram and the catapult-were brought to bear upon the devoted city, and the Jews, rendered desperate by the straits to which they were reduced, made frequent sallies with the hope of firing and destroying the inevitable destroyers of their walls. The difficulties of the besiegers were greatly increased by the natural strength of the situation of Jerusalem. A glance at any good chart of Jerusalem will show that for an army to approach the city within bowshot, much less within battering-ram distance, was one of the most arduous feats of ancient warfare; and the Jews were not slow to avail themselves of those natural advantages. More than once it was only by the personal exertions of Titus that the machines for assaulting the walls and their defenders were preserved from destruction, while the Roman soldiers began to grow tired of a siege which presented so protracted a chance of success. To prevent these sorties of the Jews, the Roman commanders saw fit to encompass the entire circuit of the city with a wall, so as to prevent the egress of the besieged, and to put a stop to all supplies reaching the city. Two out of the three lines of defence erected by the Jews were taken one after the other, with desperate slaughter on both sides; but the third wall, including the defences of the Temple, was held with wonderful resolution. Vain were the repeated attempts of Titus to bring the inhabitants to terms; they would not listen to any proposals, and the patriotism of the people was shown by the divided factions, which had hitherto weakened the national defences, combining to bring about a united defence, and by the unparalleled courage of the Jews, who devoted themselves in companies for the common weal. At length hunger-that most terrible of persuaders-began to tell upon them. A famine, unprecedented in the annals of war, Several aided the pestilence and the sword of the enemy. thousands died of hunger; there were not left people able to bury the dead; the most horrible cannibalism was practisedmothers eating their own children; and the sewers and dung hills were resorted to for remnants of food which might yield some satisfaction to the miserable seekers after it. Deserters came into the Roman camp, only to be slain for the sake of the gold they were supposed to have swallowed; and prisoners taken with arms in their hands were crucified, or otherwise executed, save those who were sold into a slavery worse than that to which Nebuchadnezzar had subjected their forefathers. Gradually the last defences were assailed, and after a bloody contest carried, amid the despairing cries of the Jews and the triumphant shouts of the Romans. The Temple, well garrisoned, resisted last of all, and by its defence so exasperated were the Roman soldiers, that, in spite of positive orders from Titus to the contrary, they fired the gates, and even while the Roman commanders were in the Holy of Holies, which they were anxious to save, set the entire Temple ablaze in a great sheet of flame, which destroyed, besides the garrison, six thousand persons, including women and children, who had taken refuge in one of the courts. Fierce was the rage of the soldiery, ample was the opportunity for exhibiting it; and not all the exhortations,

not all the threats of the officers could stop them in the work of destruction. For several days the work of death went on; neither age nor sex was spared; the nation, as represented by Jerusalem, was involved in one common destruction, and it was never known how many thousands perished after the city was actually taken. Ninety thousand persons were sold into slavery, and Josephus estimates the number of Jews who perished by famine, pestilence, and the sword, during the siege, at upwards of a million. The anger of the conquerors was not satisfied with the destruction of the people-the very stones of the city excited wrath. The Temple, which had been burnt with much of the treasure within it, was thrown down, not one stone being left upon another, and Roman soldiers drove a plough over the blood-stained ground which had been the site of the Holy of Holies. A few houses alone remained to show where had once been a city, and the captives who were saved were only so spared to grace the triumph of the Roman conquerors in Rome. Thus were the words of our blessed Lord verified with dismal distinctness, ere the generation that had crucified him had passed away; thus was the house of the daughter of Zion left unto her desolate, the inhabitants thereof being led captive among all nations. Never since that day has the Jewish nation existed as a separate entity; never since then has Jerusalem been in other hands than those of the stranger. She is in captivity with her children, and so, by the words of the prophecy, shall continue until she shall say, "Blessed is He that cometh in the name of the Lord."

ABSTRACT.-An abridgment or epitome of an entire deed, document, or book.

ACCEPTING A BILL.-The writing, by the person on whom it is drawn (called the Acceptor), of his name across the Bill. By this he undertakes to pay it when due.

ACCOMMODATION BILL.-A bill of exchange accepted by an individual for the convenience of the drawer or indorser, with whom it rests to take it up at maturity.

ACCOUNT (A/c.).—A statement of the sums due by one person

to another, either for goods, or originating out of any mutual transactions.

ACCOUNT CURRENT.-A statement of transactions between two or more parties during a certain period, drawn out in Dr. and Cr. form, and in the order of their dates.

ACCOUNT SALES.-An account rendered to a merchant by his agent, showing the weights or quantities of each parcel of goods sold, with the prices obtained, and the net result after deducting all expenses attending the sale.

ACCOUNTANT.-A person skilled in accounts. The official in charge of the accounts of a business is termed an accountant. ACQUITTANCE.-A discharge in writing for money, debt, or

liability.

ACTUARY.-The officer of a Life Assurance Company, whose duty it is to make the computations required in the business, and to advise on all questions pertaining to the statistics and finance of life assurance. Also applied to similar officers in other businesses.

ADJUSTMENT.-In marine insurance, the settlement of a loss incurred by the insured.

ADJUSTMENT OF AN ACCOUNT.-Agreeing or settling the particulars.

AD VALOREM DUTY.-Duty levied on the value and not on the quantity of articles.

ATTORNEY (POWER OF).-A document granting to others the power to sign and act for the grantor either in special cases or unreservedly. (See Procuration.)

ATTORNEY (Warrant of).-See Warrant of Attorney. AUCTION.-A public sale of property to the highest bidder. AUDIT. An examination of accounts and vouchers by authorised persons known as AUDITORS.

AVERAGE. (General Particular.)-In marine insurance General Average is a proportionate contribution levied on the owners or insurers of a ship or its cargo according to value, when part of the cargo or ship has been sacrificed for the preservation of the remainder. Particular Average is so called in contradistinction to general average. In this case the loss is totally borne by the owner or insurer.

AVERAGE-STATER.-A person employed by the insured to prepare statements of averages preparatory to their adjustment with the insurers. These statements, which are paid for by the insurers, are often of an intricate character.

AWARD. The decision in a case of arbitration. BACKWARDATION.-A consideration paid to purchasers for an extension of time by speculators on the Stock Exchange unable to supply the stock or shares they have contracted to deliver.

BAIL. To release a person or goods on receipt of security termed a BAILEE, and the document he signs is called a BAIL

ADVENTURE.-A speculation.

ADVICE ADVICES.-Information by letter; commercial reports and intelligence conveyed by letter.

AFFIDAVIT. A declaration in writing, upon oath.
AGENDA.-A memorandum book.

AGENT.-A person authorised to transact business for another, who is called the principal.

AGIO. The difference between the real and nominal value of money, or of paper currency and specie.

ANNUITY.-A periodical or yearly payment. ANNUITIES.(Certain-Deferred - Contingent-Reversion ary.)—Annuities Certain are annual payments for fixed terms of years, commencing immediately. Deferred Annuities are annual payments for fixed terms of years, commencing at the expiration of a period agreed upon. If either of these two descriptions of annuities depends upon the existence of one or more lives, they are termed Life Annuities. Contingent Annuities are payable only in the event of some contingency happening, as the death of a person: they are also termed Reversionary Annuities.

APPRAISE. To set a price upon, or to make an estimate of the value of anything. The act of appraising is known as making an APPRAISEMENT, and the person doing so is called an APPRAISER.

ARBITRATION.-The adjustment of disputed matters by the decision of one or more neutral persons (who are called ARBITRATORS), chosen by consent of those concerned.

ARBITRATION OF EXCHANGES.-A computation of the proportional rate between two places, through intermediate places, for the purpose of ascertaining whether direct or indirect drafts and remittances are the most advantageous. When one intermediate place only is concerned, it is termed simple arbitration; when more, compound arbitration. For the method of doing this, see Lessons in Arithmetic, XLI. (Vol. III., page 166).

ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION.-A deed containing the terms of agreement made by a number of persons forming a trading firm or joining in a speculation.

ASSETS. A general term for cash, property, and dependencies, in contradistinction to liabilities.

ASSIGNEE.-One to whom an assignment is made. ASSIGNMENT.-The act of appointing another to exercise control over certain property.

ASSURANCE (LIFE).-A system by which publie companies engage to pay to the person contracting with them, a certain sum at the death of a nominee, in consideration of certain cash payments called premiums, agreed upon by the parties concerned. (See Insurance.)

ATTACHMENT.-A notice prohibiting the sale or disposal of the goods of any debtor in the hands of a third party, until notice shall have been given of the settlement of all claims against the owner. (See Garnishment.)

BOND.

BAILMENT.-A delivery of goods in trust, on the understanding that they shall be re-delivered as soon as the time or purpose for which they v. ere bailed shall have elapsed or been accomplished.

BALANCE. In accounts, the difference required to equalise both Dr. and Cr. sides.

BALANCE OF TRADE.-The difference in value between the aggregate amount of a country's exports and imports.

BALANCE SHEET.-A statement of the assets and liabilities of any trading concern.

BALE. A pack or parcel of merchandise bound up in a wrapper of paper, canvas, or any similar stuff.

BANCO. A Continental term for bank money, which frequently differs from the current money.

BANK. (Private-Joint Stock.)-An establishment for the custody and issue of money. Private Banks are composed of one or more influential men with large capital, whose fortunes and positions in society are security for the sums placed in their care. Joint-Stock Banks are composed of numerous members, who together contribute a large amount of capital for the conduct of a banking business. Unless his liability be limited by the charter or deed of association under which the company is organised, the entire fortune of each member is security to the depositor. (See also Banker.)

BANK BILL.-A promissory note or bill of exchange issued by a bank, and payable at some future date.

BANK CHARTER.-A charter of incorporation granted to the corporation of the Bank of England. The first was granted to Mr. William Paterson (the projector of the Bank of England), on the 27th of July, 1694, for three years, and this has been renewed, with modifications, from time to time since the last renewal being in 1844. The Bank transacts the financial business of the Government at a small per-centage, and has the sole right of issuing Bank Notes for a distance of sixty-five miles round London. These notes, which though but promises to pay, are a legal tender, and are issued against a sum of about fifteen millions sterling lent to the Government under the Charter, together with the amount of bullion in reserve. What is generally known as a Suspension of the Bank Charter is a suspension of bullion payments by the Bank for these notes, relieving for a time the Bank of England of the obligation to pay these notes in gold, and yet keeping them a legal tender. It amounts, in fact, to an Act of Indemnity to the Corporation of the Bank of England against any loss they might sustain by issuing their "promises to pay," or notes against private securities whose value might depreciate. It is only done to allay a panic, or great demand for gold in the money market.

BANK CREDIT.-A credit by which a bank, on receipt of proper security, allows a person to draw on them to an agreed

extent.

VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.—VIII.

-TANGENT COMPASS-CHEMICAL EFFECTS.

WE have now to ascertain the mode in which an electric current may be produced by heat. It was discovered by Professor Seebeck, in 1821, that if two bars composed of different metals, or even of the same metal in different conditions-as, for example, cast and hammered brass-be joined together, and heat applied to the point of junction, an electric current will be produced. The best plan of trying this is to solder them together, and then bend the strip into the shape of the letter U, as shown in Fig. 45. Wires from the free ends are now connected with

a

n

Now let a spirit-lamp be applied to the junction at one end, and the needle will be at once deflected. By observing the way in which the needle points, we shall find that the current passes along the copper in the direction shown by the arrow, and back along the bismuth from p to o; that is, it travels along the bismuth from the colder to the warmer end.

By placing a lump of ice on the end m at the same time that the lamp is applied to n, the deflection of the needle will be increased. If, on the other hand, heat be applied to both ends, the effect will be diminished; and when both are at the same

the screws of the galvanometer, G, and we shall find that if the flame of a spirit-lamp, or any other source of heat, be applied to the point of junction, c, the needle will be deflected. If we now remove the source of heat, and drop a little ether on c, or lay a lump of ice on it so as to reduce the temperature there below that of the rest of the bar, the needle will be deflected the other way, showing that now the current is passing in the contrary direction.

It is not even necessary to have two different metals to exhibit these effects. If we take two pieces of the same copper wire, and, having connected one with each pole of the galvanomoter, heat one to redness and let it touch the other, a faint current will at once pass from the hot to the cold wire. These currents are called thermo-electric, to distinguish them from hydro-electric currents, or those produced by means of liquids. They possess but little intensity, and therefore galvanometers for use with them have to be specially constructed, the wire being short and thick, so as to offer as little resistance as possible.

temperature, the needle will remain in the same position that it occupied at first. We see, then, that it is not the degree of temperature which any part of the metal has, but the difference between the temperatures of its two extremities, that gives rise to the current.

The two metals employed in this experiment are bismuth and copper. Had a piece of antimony been employed instead of the copper, the current would have been more powerful. By trying the comparative effects thus produced by a number of different metals, we are able to arrange them in a series, just as we did when considering their employment in ordinary batteries (Lesson II.).

As a result of these experiments, the metals are arranged in the following order :Bismuth.

Aluminium.
Brass.
Lead.

Nickel.

German Silver. Mercury.

Tin.

Copper. Platinum. Silver. Zinc.

Iron. Antimony. Tellurium.

If a bar composed of any two of these be heated at the junc

VOL. V.

125

higher up in the list to the other. On the other hand, when the junction is cooled, the current will flow in the reverse direction. Now it will be seen from this table that the greatest effect will be obtained when bismuth and tellurium are the two metals employed. The latter of these, however, cannot be procured in any quantity, on account of its rarity; bismuth and antimony are therefore the pair commonly made use of. A number of short bars of these metals are soldered together end to end, as it is found that the power increases with the number of pairs employed, in the same way as it does with the number of cells in an ordinary battery. Only the alternate junctions must, however, be heated, or else the currents produced will neutralise one another. To accomplish this, the compound bar is bent upon itself at every joint, after the manner shown in Fig. 48; and in this way the alternate joints are brought close together, so that by applying heat to one side of the pile the current will be produced. When the instrument is placed in a warm room all parts become equally heated, and therefore no effect is produced on the galvanometer.

When a very delicate thermo-electric pile is required, some thirty or forty couples are joined together in the way represented in Figs. 47, 48. A band, composed of some non-conducting material, is then placed round the whole pile, so as to keep the bars in their places, and the ends are connected to the binding screws, mn, from which wires pass to the galvanometer. Some insulating material, usually plaster of Paris, is placed between the different bars to prevent their touching one another, and thus forming short circuits for the electric current. The ends of the piles are usually made quite smooth, and are frequently covered with lampblack, so that they may absorb the heat better. When carefully constructed, a pile of this kind is extremely sensitive, the mere fact of holding the hand within a foot or two of one end of it being quite sufficient to produce a considerable deflection in the galvanometer. In all delicate experiments on heat, such an instrument is almost indispensable, as we shall see when we come to treat of that branch of Physics. As a means, however, of producing electricity for practical purposes, these piles are seldom, if ever, employed.

The next effect of the electric current which we notice, is one which, at first sight, appears to be of little practical importance, but which has led to very great and important results. It is the influence that a wire, along which a stream of electricity is passing, exerts on a magnetised needle placed near it. The apparatus represented in Fig. 49 serves well to show this. NS is a stout brass wire, insulated by being supported on glass rods. Along this the electricity passes in the direction shown by the arrows. Just under this there is placed a magnetised needle, a b, balanced on a pivot, and the stand is so arranged that the needle shall be parallel with the wire when the current is shut off. As soon as the electricity is made to pass along in the direction SN, the north pole, a, will be deflected to the left. If the current travels in the opposite direction, this end will point to the right. This experiment is known as Oersted's, the original discovery having been made by him.

By means of the instrument shown in Fig. 50, these effects may be further investigated. A piece of brass wire is bent into the shape there shown, and small wooden cups, capable of holding a few drops of mercury, are placed on each end, so as to make the connections easily. A piece of wire, with a similar cup, c, is soldered to the other end of the oval thus formed, and a small strip of leather is placed where the wires cross below B, so as to guard against their touching one another there. The magnetic needle is balanced as before in the middle; but, as will be seen, we can now send the current over or under it, or both ways, according to the cups into which we dip our battery wires. If A and c are used, the effect will be the same as before. Now let us use the cups B and c, and thus make the current pass in the same direction, but under the needle instead of over it, and the needle will at once move in the opposite direction. We see, then, that a current passing under the needle has just the contrary effect to one passing in the same direction over it; that is, a current passing from A to C over the needle will have the same effect as one passing from c to B under it. If, then, we make it pass completely round from A to B, we shall get the effect of both parts of the circuit. Accordingly, when we want a very delicate galvanometer, the wire is wound many times round the needle, each coil, up to a certain limit, increasing the effect.

Now we shall frequently find it of importance to remember in which way the current deflects the needle, and this may easily be done by Ampere's rule, which may be stated as follows:Imagine the observer placed in the course of the current so as to face the needle, and let the current be supposed to enter at his feet, and pass up to his head. The north pole will always be deflected to the left; or, more briefly, The north pole is always deflected to the left of the current. This rule should be carefully committed to memory.

If the current be very weak, it is unable to overcome the directive action of the earth's magnetism on the needle, and hence some more delicate test is needed than is supplied by the ordinary galvanometer, which we have already had occasion to describe. Two needles are therefore taken, having the same amount of magnetic force, and they are mounted on one axle, as in Fig. 51, in such a way that the north pole a of the upper magnet may point in the same direction as the south pole of the lower one. In this way the directive action is entirely overcome, and the system will remain indifferently in any position. It is then suspended by a fibre of silk, and the only force that has then to be overcome is the torsion (Latin tortum, from torqueo, I twist) or twisting of this.

A pair of needles thus mounted is called an astatic system. Now the wire of the galvanometer is wound round such a system on the plan shown in Fig. 52, passing between the two, and then under the lower one, and great sensitiveness is thus obtained; for, as a moment's thought will show, the wire between the two needles acts on each, and as their poles point in different directions, the effect on each tends to turn the system the same way. By increasing the number of coils a very delicate instrument may be made; such a one is shown in Fig. 53, the whole being covered by a glass shade to guard from currents of air and other disturbing causes.

For all ordinary purposes, this instrument is all that can be required. Special researches, however, and recent experiments in connection with long submarine cables, have rendered. greater delicacy essential, and instruments have accordingly been made of wondrous susceptibility to the faintest trace of a current. Fresh improvements, too, are being made in almost every instrument. Fig. 54 will, however, convey to our minds a good general idea of the modifications introduced.

The two needles are exactly equal in power, so that they perfectly neutralise one another, and they are suspended by a fibre of unspun silk. A milled head, E, is provided under the instrument, by means of which the whole coil can be turned so as exactly to correspond with the needle. Levelling screws are likewise fixed to the stand, in order that the coil may be placed perfectly level, and that the thread or needle may not touch the sides of it. The frame, D, round which the coil is wound, is made of copper, so as to diminish the number of fluctuations made by the needle before coming to rest; and the face of the instrument is graduated to indicate the exact degree of deviation. Binding screws, H and K, for the battery wires are placed under the instrument.

In more recent galvanometers, the needle is made as small as possible, so as to weigh but a few grains; and a very small mirror, made of thin glass silvered, is fixed to it. A dark chimney, pierced with a small hole, is then placed over a bright lamp, and the ray of light emanating from this is made to fall on the mirror, and reflected thence to a divided scale fixed on the wall of a dark room. This ray of light serves as a very long lever, altogether devoid of weight, and thus the instrument indicates most clearly the faintest current; for, as will be readily understood, a motion of the mirror, far too small to be seen by itself, will move the luminous spot on the wall over a considerable space. An instrument of this kind is known as a Reflecting Galvanometer, and by means of one of them messages have been transmitted through the whole length of the Atlantic cable with a single cell, and that so small that the current from it could scarcely be shown by ordinary tests.

In graduating a galvanometer, the degree of deflection, if not greater than about 20°, is proportional to the strength of the curre, so that a current producing a deflection of 16° is twice as powerful as one which only turns the needle 8°. Above 20°, however, the deflection becomes less rapid, and a special table has to be ealculated, showing the relation between the power of the current and the deflection.

For exact determinations of current strength, an instrument known as the Tangent Compass, or Tangent Galvanometer, is usually employed. This is represented in Fig. 55, and consists of a strip of copper about an inch wide, bent round into a circle about a foot or eighteen inches in diameter. The ends of this strip are not allowed to touch, but are connected with the two wires seen underneath the instrument. A wooden

frame is usually placed in the lower half of the circle, and serves to keep it in shape, and, at the same time, to support in its centre a small compass needle, with an accurately divided scale under it. This needle should not be more than an inch or an inch and a half long, and the instrument should be placed in the magnetic meridian; that is, so that the needle may be in the same plane as the ring. If now the wires underneath be connected with the battery, so that the current may pass round the copper strip, the needle will be at once deflected, and the strength of the current will be exactly proportional to the tangent of the angle of deflection. Currents of any strength may be measured with this instrument, and it has this great advantage, that a broad passage is provided by the copper strip, and thus little resistance is offered to the passage of the electricity. In consequence of this, it can be employed with currents which have quantity but comparatively little intensity.

It must be remembered that the readings of this only show comparative, and not actual strength. To ascertain the latter, a current of known power must be passed round the ring, and the deflection noted; we shall then be able to compare other currents with this, and thus learn their intensity.

One practical result, then, of the effect of a current on a magnetic needle is seen in the construction of the galvanometer. The other is still more important, for Oersted's experiment contained in it the first germ of the electric telegraph, the ordinary needle instrument consisting essentially of a galvanometer so placed that the needle may be vertical. The details of its construction will be explained further on. We shall now proceed to notice the chemical effects of the electric current, and these we shall find to be very numerous and important. Faraday applied the term electrolysis to that special branch of the science which treats of the laws of electrical decomposition, and it has since been generally adopted. Any substance which is susceptible of being decomposed by the current is called an electrolyte. It is found, however, that only liquids can be thus acted on; solids, therefore, must be either melted or dissolved before any effect can be produced on them. The poles of the battery, or the ends of the wires by which the current enters and leaves the liquid, are called electrodes, from the Greek word hodos, which means a way. They are looked upon as the roads along which the travels, the positive pole being called the anode, or and the negative pole the cathode, or "road down." Now it is found that when substances are thus decomposed there are some of their ingredients that always go to one pole, and some which always go to the other. To distinguish these, those which go to the positive pole (anode) are called anions, and those which go to the other, cations. These complete the list of technical terms which will be employed here. For substances to be decomposed by the agency of electricity, it is essential that they be chemical combinations; simple substances or mere mechanical mixtures being altogether unaffected. Thus the current may be passed through a melted alloy without decomposing or altering it. If, however, a solution of any

electricity

"road up,'

chemical salt be placed between the electrodes, it will at once be separated into two different substances.

The decomposing power thus possessed by a large battery is very great indeed, some substances being decomposed by it that resist all other attempts to resolve them into their constituents. It was in this way that the simple metals sodium and potassium were first obtained, their oxides having been reduced by Sir H. Davy, by means of a powerful battery. The experiment may easily be repeated on a small scale. A piece of caustic potash or soda must be moistened with water, and a little mercury placed with it, so as to form an amalgam with the metal. The poles of the battery are now dipped into it, and the potassium will be liberated at the cathode. It can easily be separated from the mercury, as by distilling it out of contact with the air, the potassium will be left in the retort, while the mercury passes over.

LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-XLIX. THE VERB: TENSE, MOOD, AND CONJUGATION. THE English language has variations of form to express variaThese variations tions of person, number, tense, and mood. of form exist within narrow limits.

The term person refers to the distinctions which exist among the speaker, the person or thing spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of. The speaker is the first person, the person or thing spoken to is accounted the second person, and the person or thing spoken of is accounted the third person.

There are, then, three persons, and these three are represented by the personal pronouns I, or we, the first person; thou, you or ye, the second person; and he, she, it, or they, the third person. Number has a reference to the fact whether a subject indicates one person or thing, or more than one. If a noun denotes one object, it is said to be in the "singular number;" if a noun denotes more than one, it is said to be in the "plural (from the Latin plus, pluris, more) number.”

Tense (from the Latin tempus) has reference to time. An action may now be going on, then it is said to be in "the preOr an action may be over and gone; then the sent tense." verb which describes it is in "the past tense." Or again, an action may be about to commence, in some time to come, then the corresponding tense is called "the future tense."

Mood (from the Latin modus, method, or manner) is a term which refers to the manner in which an action is set forth. Thus you may declare simply he teaches, when you indicate a fact without any qualification; this is called "the indicative (Latin 66 Teach indico, I point out) mood." Or you may say to a tutor, the boy;" then you give a command; in this case the verb is said to be in "the imperative (Latin impĕro, I command) tive (from the Latin in, not, and finis, limit) mood," that is, the or commanding "mood." Another mood is called "the infiniindefinite mood, the form of the verb which is not bounded or qualified by person, number, or tense. Besides the indicative, the imperative, and the infinitive commonly set forth in English grammar, the Latins had a subjunctive (or dependent) mood, and the Greeks had an optative or wishing mood.

The term voice has reference to the fact whether or not the If the

action of the verb comes back on the subject or actor. action of the verb does not come back on the subject or actor, the verb is said to be in the verb does come back on the subject or actor, the verb is said the passive (Latin, patior, I suffer, I am the subject of an action) voice."

the active voice." If the action of

to be in

Verbs are modified in person, number, tense, and mood. There are, then, three persons, the first, the second, and the third. There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. The persons and the numbers are indicated partly by inflections, and partly by the personal pronouns.

There are two tenses-the present tense and the past tense. There are three moods-the infinitive mood, the imperative mood, and the indicative mood.

All other modifications of verbal meaning are expressed, not by varieties of form, but by varieties of words.

In these statements and definitions I have said nothing of conjugation; the reason is that the English verb has nothing which can with propriety be termed conjugation..

As I have not recognised the complicated system of moods and tenses, the idea and model of which were borrowed from the and weak preterites or past tenses lately introduced into English classical tongues, so here I do not adopt the distinction of strong grammar from the Teutonic tongues. The native simplicity of the English grammar should be studiously preserved.

The word conjugation is also employed in another sense, viz., to denote the general form of the verb when presented in full. In this sense conjugation is nearly the same as formation or form, and for it the term model or example, or to take a term of similar import from the Greek (viz., paradigm) may be employed.

PARADIGM OF THE TRANSITIVE VERB "TOUCH."
Principal Parts.-Touch, touching, touched.