Brahmanas and Upanishads of about B.c. 800 Brahmans look upon fire-worship as procuring a renewal of merely perishable life, and upon the Gods as enjoying merely a limited term of existence. Beyond Agni and beyond the sun they perceive a sublimer object of adoration in Brahme, the universal Soul. But Brahme had no personality, and could receive no worship. Brahme pervaded the universe, and in proportion as any individual succeeded in approaching to the state of Brahme, he also lost his personality. The Brahmans had no idea of God as the creator and governor of the world, their sublimest notion being that of eternal essence universally diffused; plants, animals, men, and gods, all partook of this effusion of soul; but all visible life was mere illusion, and that which was held in common by all existence was the only reality. Brahmanical philosophy, in fact, confuses and puts to flight ordinary notions of reality by the very vehemence with which it struggles to escape from illusion. Birth or life was the entanglement of a portion of Brahme within the net of illusion, and from this entanglement not even death was an escape, for no sooner did one illusory existence close than another equally illusory commenced. The portion of soul which was disengaged by death, took possession of some other earthly tenement, it might be of an infant man, but it might with equal ease and probability be that of an animal or vegetable form. This appeared to the philosophical Brahmans as a necessary and logical deduction from their doctrine of the universal Soul, and they did not shrink from admitting the fact, although not at once anticipating all the consequences. The doctrine of Transmigration is touched upon in the Upanishads, and, although further developed

in the Code of Manu, does not appear in its full detail and extravagance earlier than the Buddhist Sutras, written chiefly since our era, and the Brahmanical Puranas of modern Brahmanism, commencing about A.D. 900. Moral retribution was from the first combined with transmigration; and it was assumed that whilst men of the highest devotion had a chance of absorption into Brahme, or of being born again as inferior gods, bad men would become beasts or reptiles, and that all would be born and reborn, until the necessary penance had been made and the necessary perfection acquired, and all that was finite became merged into the infinite.

An interesting illustration of these opinions will be found in the following abstract of the Katha Upanishad, which has been translated by that distinguished and learned native of India, the late Rammohun Roy

:

A learned Brahman, named Vajasravasa, performed a sacrifice, at which he distributed his whole property; but the cows which he presented on the occasion as fees to the ministering priests were old and infirm, and this greatly distressed his son, the young Prince Nachiketa, who knew that whoever gave worn-out cows to priests was carried to the mansion where there is no felicity whatever. He begged therefore that his father would consign him in lieu of the cows, and persisted in asking to whom his father would consign him. The father, provoked at the boy's importunity, said hastily he would give him to Yama. This astonished the dutiful Nachiketa, for Yama was God of Death, and he wondered whether his father had had a previous engagement to this effect, or whether he spoke unawares in anger; but when the father recovered his self-possession,

and was afflicted to think of the words which he had used, Nachiketa would not allow him to retract, saying, "Life is too short to make it worth while to gain advantages by means of falsehood and breach of promise."

Nachiketa proceeded therefore to the habitation of Yama; but the God of Death being absent from his dwelling, the youth remained three days unnoticed. Yama then returned, and was told by his family that for three days a Brahman had been his guest without receiving hospitality. Such an accident usually involved families in misfortune, for a Brahman guest is like fire, and good householders extinguish his anger by offering water, a seat, and food. Yama is in haste to offer every reparation in his power, and, in order "that bliss may attend him," begs that his guest will allow him to grant three favours in atonement for the pain which he had caused him. Nachiketa is readily conciliated, and makes the first of his three wishes a request that his father's distress may be removed, and his anger extinguished. To this Yama replied, "Thy father shall have the same regard for thee as before; and being assured of thy existence, he shall, through my power, repose the remaining nights of his life free from sorrow." The young man next begs for knowledge respecting fire, by which heaven is attained, where, he says, "there is no fear, and where even thou, Yama, canst not always exercise thy dominion." Yama consents, and proceeds to explain the nature of fire as the support of the world and yet residing in the body, and gives also particulars of the bricks which are requisite in forming and preserving sacred fire. Yama, gratified at the attentive manner in which his instruction is received, promised that in future sacred fire should be called after the name of

Nachiketa, and presenting on the occasion with "a variously-coloured necklace," assured him that a wise worshipper of sacred fire attains the highest fruition after death, concluding, "Now, O Nachiketa, make thy third request." But the pupil's third request was to be instructed in the nature of the soul; and at this Yama demurred, saying, "Even Gods have doubted and disputed on this subject, which being obscure never can be thoroughly comprehended. Ask, O Nachiketa, some other favour instead of this." But Nachiketa replied that no other object was so desirable, and no instructor equal to Yama could be found. Still Yama begs him to withdraw this wish, and not to take advantage of his promise. "Request," says he,

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sons and grandsons, each to live a hundred years; request cattle, elephants, gold, horses, long life, and empire upon earth," anything, in fact, however difficult of acquisition, in the mortal world. 66 Ask," Yama begins again, "for beautiful women, with elegant equipages, and musical instruments such as no man can acquire without our aid." But the young philosopher is not to be dissuaded, and replies calmly, that such enjoyments as Yama has been offering are short-lived, destroying the strength of the senses, and that the life even of the Gods is comparatively short. "Let therefore thy equipages and thy dancing and music remain with thee; no man can be satisfied with riches. . . The only object I desire is what I have already begged of thee." "Do thou instruct us," he continues, "in that knowledge which removes doubts respecting existence after death; I, Nachiketa, cannot ask any other favour than this.”

Yama, although God of Death, at length consents, saying, "Knowledge which leads to absorption is one thing,

and rites which have fruition for their object another; each of these, producing different consequences, holds out to man inducements to follow it: the man who of these two chooses knowledge, is blessed; and he who for the sake of reward practises rites, is excluded from the enjoyment of eternal beatitude." Yama enlarges further upon this idea, and expresses admiration at Nachiketa's having refused to adopt practices which lead merely to riches and other perishable gratifications, to which men in general are attached; and he makes this curious confession, that he had himself performed the worship of the sacred fire in order to procure his present sovereignty of long duration, although he knew that all fruition obtained by means of rites was perishable. Yama then endeavours to explain the nature of the soul, saying, it is "that which is difficult to be comprehended, . . . veiled by the ideas acquired through the senses, does not depart even in great danger, and exists unchangeable. A wise man, knowing the resplendent soul through a mind abstracted from worldly objects, . . . neither rejoices nor does he grieve." Yama endeavours further to explain the nature of the soul as "unborn, eternal," "not injured by the hurt which the body may receive: if any one ready to kill another imagine he can destroy his soul, and the other think that his soul shall suffer destruction, they both know nothing; for neither does it kill, nor is it killed." Some of Yama's assertions respecting the soul are given in antithesis, as, "The soul is the smallest of the small, and greatest of the great. The soul, although without motion, seems to go to furthest space; though it resides in the body at rest, yet it seems to move everywhere." * The soul moreover

...

* Referring to this passage, Dr. E. Röer remarks, that "the Upanishads