FEMININE. The moon, religion, virtue (and all particular virtues), the earth, spring, a ship, a state, a city, a country (and all particular countries), the soul, the mind, &c.

In speaking of animals in a general manner, we attribute the masculine sex to some, and the feminine to others, although they really possess both. Thus, the lion, the horse, the ass, the dog, the fox, the eagle, are spoken of as masculine; while the camel, the cat, the hare, the ostrich, are reckoned feminine.

Most of the smaller creatures, with reptiles and fishes, are usually spoken of as neuter. Yet there are some exceptions; and most of those animals that have been made the subject of popular fable, have had a particular gender ascribed to them.

Exercise.

To write the following exercise-Rule three columns, headed Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. Then write each of the words in that to which it properly belongs. Opposite each masculine noun supply the corresponding feminine, and opposite each feminine the corresponding masculine. Write common nouns in both columns; and neuters, capable of personification, both in the neuter column, and that of the sex usually ascribed to them.

Boy, roe, gentleman, bride, aunt, man, sparrow, grave, marchioness, margrave, tree, wife, host, stag, heiress, goose, cousin, prophet, mother, she-goat, widow, cow, duck, doe, buck, ewe, daughter, citizen, maidservant, friend, earl, madam, hero, czar, Jew, duke, brother, lion, bee, wasp, ant, nightingale, rose, time, soul, shoe, robin, fortune.

CASES OF NOUNS.

54. In form, the nominative and objective cases of nouns are

alike.

55. The possessive singular is formed by adding an apostrophe and s to the nominative; as-Nelson's Monument.

56. When the nominative plural ends in s, the possessive is formed by adding only an apostrophe; as-On eagles' wings. But if the nominative plural does not end in s, the apostrophe and s must be supplied; as—the children's flag.

Sometimes when the nominative singular ends in s, ss, or ce, the apostrophe only is added in the possessive; as-Mars' Hill; for goodness' sake; for conscience' sake.

When two or more nouns in the possessive case are closely joined together, the 's is annexed only to the last, and understood to the rest; as-Beaumont and Fletcher's plays. But if several words intervene, the 's is added to each; as-he took his father's, as well as his mother's advice.

Exercise.

Write the following nouns in the possessive singular:-Arts, tyrant, king, ambition, tempest, heart, sword, wolf, rose, sorrow, Spain, earthquake, chieftain, grass, woods, men, women, children.

Write the following in the possessive plural:-Man, woman, child, brother, friend, hero, soldier, sailor, mason, clergyman, teacher, pupil, merchant, boy, horse, lion, tiger, ship, eagle.

ARTICLES.

Nouns are taken in an extended or limited sense, according as they have or have not limiting or defining words before them.

57. A noun without a limiting word is used in the widest sense, to include the whole species; as-man is mortal; or it is to be understood indefinitely, as marking some or many, though not all; as-there are fishes that have wings.

58. The article the may be placed before either a singular or plural noun; as-the book, the books; also before an adjective used in the abstract-he studies the pathetic; or used instead of a noun-the brave.

59. A or an is generally used only before singular nouns; yet we say a few books, a great many sheep.

60. An is used before a noun beginning with a vowel or h mute; a in all other cases; as-an ear, an hour; a bird, a heart.

EXAMPLES.

(57.) Man is born unto trouble. The proper study of mankind is man. Sweet the hum of bees, the voice of girls, the song of birds. Land of brown heath and shaggy wood. Days, months, years, and ages shall circle away. By torch and trumpet fast arrayed.

Ships by thousands lay below,

And men in nations-all were his.

(58.) I mean the steamer with the red funnel. The sun went down. The moon o'er a dark cloud shone clear. The isles of Greece. The Pyrrhic dance. The Douglas thus his counsel said. The Dane has landed. Weary of his life, he flung it away in battle with the Turk. The Persian's grave. The present life abounds in the poetic. No passion unfolds itself sooner than the love of the ornamental. Then shriek'd the timid, and stood still the brave. This odious fashion is produced by a conspiracy of the old, the ugly, and the ignorant, against the young and beautiful, the witty, and the gay.

(59, 60.) A vulgar incendiary may destroy in an hour a magnificent fabric. A good word is an easy obligation. A king sat on the rocky brow. A beautiful eye makes silence eloquent; a kind eye makes contradiction an assent; an enraged eye makes beauty deformed.

ADJECTIVES.

CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES.

61. Adjectives may be divided into eight classes-Common, Proper, Numeral, Distributive, Demonstrative, Indefinite, Verbal, and Compound.

62. COMMON ADJECTIVES denote common qualities; assweet, sour, good, bad, great, small.

B

63. PROPER ADJECTIVES are formed from proper nouns; thus-Socratic, Aristotelian, Baconian, Roman, Irish, Indian. 64. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES express the idea of number in the nouns to which they are joined. There are two kinds of

numeral adjectives :—

1. Cardinals; as-one, two, three.

II. Ordinals; as-first, second, third.

65. DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES refer to the separate individuals of a number. They are-each, every, either, neither.

Each is generally used when only two objects are mentioned, to denote them both, but separately considered. It can also be applied to a greater number. Every denotes all the individuals of a number taken separately, and it always requires more than two. Either means one or the other, and ought not to be used when both are included. Neither is equivalent to not either.

66. DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES point out specific objects. They are-this, that, of which the plurals are respectively these, those.

This refers to what is near the person speaking; that to what is further off. Some grammarians add yon and yonder, which are used by good authors.

67. INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES refer in a more vague and general manner to the objects spoken of. They are many, much, several, few, all, no, some, any, other, another, such, whole, both.

68. VERBAL OR PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES are derived from verbs, and end in ing or ed, except when irregular. See List of Irregulars, p. 39.)

69. A COMPOUND ADJECTIVE is formed from two simple words, with an intervening hyphen.

EXAMPLES.

(62.) The waters made a pleasant moan. Steep banks. Busy hum. Genial freshness. Incessant occupation. Unwelcome news. Boyish days. A dreary plain, forlorn and wild. Smooth as monumental alabaster.

(63.) Moorish turrets. Grecian arts. Numidian piles. Portuguese sailors. Turkish apathy. English customs. Ciceronian eloquence. Pindaric odes. French frigates. Fill high the cup with Samian wine. Silent and mournful sat an Indian chief. The Socratic school arose from the Ionic. The first great enterprise was the Argonautic expedition. Roman consuls.

(64.) Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain. And there five noble maidens sat. Man's first disobedience. George the Third. Frowning, smiling for the hundredth time.

(65.) Each shafted oriel glimmers white. Broken lightnings flash from every cloud. Nerve every arm, and every heart inspire. You wrong me, every way you wrong me. Either book will do. The upright judge inclines to neither party. Neither party yielded. (66.) This world was made for Cæsar. The grave-that home of man.

That heavy sound breaks in once more. These friends bind me to earth. Those sounds of wo. Yon fair bands shall merry England claim. Yon flowery arbours. All Arabia breathes from yonder box.

(67.) Father of many nations. Many a time and oft. Carry much seed into the field. After several victories. Tells of a few stout hearts that fought and died. Angels' visits, few and far between. Few years have passed. All the men and women merely players. Must I endure all this? Touch all her chords. No strife between thee and me. Are there no means? We landed some hundred men, when we found some fresh water. Some pious drops the closing eye requires. Who will shew us any good? Other lords have had dominion. Another voice than thine, that threat had vainly sounded. Such love as thine. The whole world. Both means have failed.

(68.) Echoing thunder. Inviting opportunity. Interesting story. Waking dreams. Curling foam and mingling flood. Running account. Flourishing manufactures. Allotted time. Animated expression. Departed heroes. Accomplished scholars. A broken heart. A merited reproof. An exalted character. Battered walls.

(69.) Well-dressed youths. Straw-built shed. Heart-rending shriek. Heart-easing mirth. Earth-o'ergazing hills. Far-scattered light. Sevenhilled city. Ill-fated subjects. Life-giving energy. Self-denying zeal. Good-humoured reply. Ivy-mantled tower. Ivy-crowned Bacchus.

Exercise.

Point out the adjectives in the following sentences, telling to what class each of them belongs, or write them, marked as 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. :A trembling criminal; a quick-eyed botanist; any person; another day; bloodshot eyes; a running account; all men; much applause ; three horses; the fifth century; this region; that river; each heart exulting, and each look resigned; neither party; a raw and gusty day; a beautiful landscape; a hostile army; a Roman consul; Ciceronian eloquence.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

70. The comparative degree of monosyllabic adjectives is formed by adding er, and the superlative by adding est, to the positive; as- -fair, fairer, fairest.

71. This mode of comparison is also used for a few dissyllables, chiefly those ending in y; as-happy, happier, happiest.

If the adjective already ends in e, the comparative and superlative require only r and st; as-wise, wiser, wisest.

If the adjective ends in y, this must be changed into i before er and est; as-dry, drier, driest.

Refer also to the Orthographical Rules IX., X., XI. on pp. 4, 5.

72. Adjectives of more than one syllable, with the above exception, express the comparative by prefixing more, and the superlative by most; as-common, more common, most

common.

This is a modern practice. In Milton, for instance, we find famousest, virtuousest, &c.

Elder and eldest are applied to persons; and, according to the best usage, only in comparing members of the same family. Thus-an elder brother, the eldest sister; but Wellington was little older than Napoleon; the oldest street in the town.

Many grammarians object to the addition of comparative and superlative terms when the adjective already expresses the highest degree; as-chief, extreme, universal, perfect, true. Yet some of these forms are found in most languages, and in our own old authors. Not only Bacon, Shakspeare, and Spenser, but Dryden and Addison, use extremest; and similar authority exists for chiefest and more perfect. They are not generally employed, however, by our best modern

writers.

Some superlatives end in most; and 'these are not always formed from adjectives in the positive; such are-nethermost, lowermost, topmost, hindmost, undermost, upmost, and uppermost; inmost and innermost, foremost, downmost, northmost, headmost, utmost, hithermost.

A term used to express a very high degree of any quality, without directly comparing the object with any other, is often called the superlative of eminence, or superlative absolute; as—an extremely fine day; a most beautiful garden.

On the other hand, a degree somewhat less than the positive may be expressed without direct comparison; as-saltish, rather salt, somewhat bitter. And the lower and lowest degrees may be expressed by prefixing the adverbs less and least; as-less useful, least useful. This is sometimes called the comparison of diminution.

Exercise.

Write the comparative and superlative of the following:-Thick, narrow, bold, cold, warm, weak, proud, poor, strict, tight, brown, grand, green, strong, broad, stout. Brave, lame, tame, huge, large, ample, pale, stale, austere, fine. Sad, red, fit, hot, grim. Lovely, holy, mighty, gay, ready. Abstemious, abundant, callous, solemn, eventful, perilous, flexible, serious, vigorous, triumphant, modern, tranquil, injurious.

PRONOUNS.

A Pronoun has been defined to be a word used instead of a noun,' as the term itself would indicate: this, however, holds good only with reference to one class of them; while of most others, perhaps the best description is, that they suggest or enable us to recognise an object which is not either named or described, although they can by no means be said to stand instead of the nouns that would name it.