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mouth and the Rhode Island development have increased much faster than the Massachusetts; and will in the end most probably give character to the whole. At least such is the present tendency of things, and so it has been ever since the close of the revolutionary war. present nothing seems likely to arrest it, unless it be the vast immigration from the continent of Europe. The literature, the ideas, the habits which those immigrants bring with them, though the immigrants are mostly receptive rather than productive, acted upon rather than acting, will in the end exert a powerfully modifying influence on our national character.

Roger Williams, the conscientious and able leader of the democracy of these times, the most formidable and the most estimable of the opponents of the Puritans, deserves a special notice. Roger Williams was the prototype of the best sort of ultra reformers. There are many of his class at the present day, though but few as good and as amiable as he. It is a race that always will exist in every age of advancement and reform, and it is a kind that goeth not out except by prayer and fasting. Denunciation, persecution, blind conservatism, do not the least good. The reforms which are needed must be conscientiously, faithfully, and with all possible dispatch, accomplished, and thus the exciting, sustaining cause of the ultraism be taken out of the way. You must cure ultraisms in society as you cure delirium tremens in the individual, by abstaining from all that intoxicates. If this be not practicable, why, then the disease must ever and anon make its appearance.

Williams was an honest, earnest, good man, at heart a Christian, benevolent towards all, forbearing and forgiving to his enemies. In his controversies he was severe and bitter as any of his contemporaries; and no man ever said harder or more cutting things against the Quakers than he. But it is to his credit, and posterity ought ever to bear it in mind to his honor and with never ceasing gratitude to his memory, that he utterly repudiated physical pains and penalties and the burden of civil disabilities for mere matters of opinion.

The great duty of religious toleration he saw clearly, and practised consistently; and in this he was greatly in advance of most of the men of his age. The Puritans generally had begun to see something of this truth; though like the blind man in the gospel whose eyes had just begun to receive the light, they saw men as trees walking. Cromwell, Milton, Vane, and a few others, understood the matter clearly; but they were exceptions to the general rule; and for nothing was Cromwell more severely blamed by that great and good man, Richard Baxter, than for his principles of entire religious toleration. This may show what the age was in that respect. We honor Williams for contending in behalf of this great principle, we honor him for his consist

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ent practice in regard to it, and we cheerfully acknowledge the debt of gratitude which we owe him for it. Nor was he ultra on this point. He well understood and very happily pointed out the limitations of religious tolerance. He compared the members of a commonwealth to a ship's crew and passengers on the ocean, including men of every sort. The shipmaster is at liberty to establish daily worship, but not to compel others to attend it; nor are those who do not attend at liberty to disturb those who do. All are bound to submit to the rules of the ship in whatever pertains to the safety and comfort of the voyage, to bear their part of the expenses, to respect and obey the officers; and if any should refuse to do this, should any under pretext that all are equal in Christ, preach or write that there ought to be no officers or rules or punishments, I have never denied (said he) that such transgressors ought to be judged, restrained, compelled and punished, if they deserve. (Talvj p. 390, 91.)

Williams had an ardent, impatient mind; an idea burnt in him with such heat and flame that he could not stop to see its connection with other ideas, or its adaptedness to existing circumstances. While the iron was hot he hammered away with all his might, regardless of the shape he was giving to it, or of the use that was afterwards to be made of it. Hence many of his blows and much of his toil and sweat were thrown away. As soon as he got a thought he must work it out, must make everything else consistent with it through and through, whatever inconsistencies and incongruities might grow out of this one string of consistencies. It is pleasant to see the two boots of a pair perfectly matched; but if the feet on which they are to be worn are unlike, such perfect mates make a very bad fit. He changed his opinions many times during his life, and knew perfectly well that the process of conviction in his own mind was not instantaneous, but progressive. Yet he could not wait for other minds to go through a like process. They must change when he did, or rather they must be changed when he was changed, no sooner and no later, or he must excommunicate them; he could not conscientiously do otherwise. Williams gave the Puritans much trouble, and there was fault on both sides. In some parts of his career he was much like the refractory men on ship board, whom he himself affirmed ought to be judged, restrained, compelled and punished as they deserve. No commonwealth, especially in times of feebleness and danger, could without self-annihilation tolerate such a course as he sometimes took in regard to the government of the colonies. Yet in all these disputes and the consequent measures of violence, it is interesting to see that not a few of the colonists loved and respected Williams as a good man, though mistaken; and that this affection and es

teem was on his part fully reciprocated. Here is a striking difference between those who are really Christians, and those who are Christians in name only.

The Puritans, though like other human beings imperfect, were Christians, gospel men, good men, full of the Holy Ghost and of faith; and a great and good work it was theirs to do, a work of which we and all the world are now reaping the benefit, and blessings be on their memory and peace to their ashes; and let their revilers and the violators of their graves meet everywhere the contempt they deserve.

ARTICLE V.

CLASSICAL EDUCATION IN THE GERMAN GYMNASIA.

By Dr. Hermann Wimmer, late Professor in the Blochmann College, Dresden, Saxony.

THE political reformation of Germany, for a long time sought by philosophers and politicians, and fostered by the general desire of union, though its progress is now apparently stopped through the failure of the late revolution, is not likely to stand still until it has effected its object. The happy accomplishment of the revolution may indeed fall to the lot of a more fortunate posterity, but the passions of a revolutionary age will not cease to disturb the peace of the living generation, and to impress their stamp on the entire face of society. Changes are brought about to be changed again after the sun of freedom has risen; but these are now unavoidable, as the shadows of night precede the morning light. Professors have been writing in newspapers or speaking in parliaments; students fighting on barricades or haranguing the people in clubs; some are prisoners; others fugitive. In "the country of thoughtfulness and learning," a political pamphlet is preferred to a scientific book, and the speech of a noisy partisan to the lecture of a learned professor. All the institutions of learning, gymnasia or universities, will suffer from the vehement shock, and the vulgar reproach often brought against classical learning as not being practical enough, will now overwhelm the reasoning of its adherents, while on the opposite side the victorious governments do not feel bound to look graciously down on institutions which brought out that pernicious spirit of freedom and union. And whatever may be the state of

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classical studies in Germany for times to come, it is but too certain, that now the political clouds darken the light of philological learning, and while every year produces volumes of modern history, the study of by-gone times and nations is in danger of being set aside, before Greek and Roman ideas of republican freedom succeed in dethroning the kings. There is no doubt but this free and glorious country, destined by Providence to be the asylum of the old world, will take in the pilgrim and make him its own. For a long time Germany has been considered by the other civilized countries as the common teacher of philology, and from Paris to Kasan, and from Edinburgh to Odessa, one may find German professors of Greek or Latin in the chairs of the universities, and German books on the study-tables of the native professors; and in this country, too, philology looks up to Germany as to her mother-land. But in order to naturalize classical learning and to attain a similar or higher degree of perfection, there seems to be no better method than to observe the way which the German philologists themselves have gone, and to pursue the same as far as circumstances may direct. The following lines are intended to throw some light upon the subject in a practical way, by showing the organization of the German schools for classical learning. The writer of this article, who has gone through the gymnasium and university, and taught afterwards the ancient languages in a college for a series of years, indulges the hope that his statements will be regarded as true.

It will not be considered out of place, to commence the description of the higher education in Germany with a few words on the common school education. "The sad chapter in the year-book of the schools," as Mr. Horace Mann calls his chapter on Attendance and Non-Attendance, in his excellent Twelfth Annual Report, may be superseded in Saxony, where parents are required by law to send their children to school. The sixth year of age is the first year of attending school, and parents who keep their children away from school longer, without being excused by sickness, are subject to a fine. The regular course of common education extends to the thirteenth or fourteenth year of age, when the boys and girls are dismissed from school by public confirmation as evangelical Christians, after having gone three or four months, twice a week, to the minister for religious instruction and examination. Teachers, like all other officers, are appointed for life-time, i. e. they themselves can change, but cannot be changed; they teach winter and summer, lead the singing in the church, play on the organ, precede with their little choir the funeral; in short, the schoolmaster of the village is at the same time the cantor, organist and sexton of the church. The small city or town (Stadt) of about two thousand inVOL. VII. No. 25.

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habitants and upwards is like the village (Dorf) in having but one school (though divided usually into two parts, one for boys and one for girls), but differs from it by having all the qualities of a village-teacher represented by several individuals; the rector or principal is teacher of the first class, the cantor is teacher of the second class, the organist is teacher of the girls, and the sexton is teacher of the smallest children. In the larger cities there are generally district-schools, as in Dresden; but Leipzig has one great burgher-school (Bürgerschule) with about ten teachers. The branches taught in all these schools are nearly the same, and do not differ much from what is taught here in town or grammar-schools; but while the boys of the peasants (the gentleman of the village has his tutor or governess, and the clergyman instructs his children himself) learn, besides reading, writing and counting, but little in history, geography and mathematics, the sons of the burghers acquire a good deal of knowledge in the same, and also in higher branches. The schoolmasters in the villages are now all bred in Teachers' Seminaries; but sometime ago there might have been found in the poorer districts, many teachers in small villages (such as have no church by themselves, but belong to a neighboring parish), who had very little education, and worked, besides, as carpenters or shoemakers for a livelihood. But now, since the income of teachers has been somewhat regulated and increased, there are even many candidates of theology teaching in village-schools, in order to support themselves in the long decade of expectation and to please the government, or some country gentleman who has the eventual disposition in regard to the ministry. A village schoolmaster has now in Saxony at least a salary of 120 to 150 thalers; there are, however, in the wealthier districts many places with an income of 300 thalers and upwards, as the interest of some old foundation in land or forest. It will be understood that the city teachers are paid at a far better rate. The tuition in the common schools is very low, and there are also free schools in the largest cities. Besides these common schools, there are in Leipzig a "Real School," in Dresden a "Real Gymnasium," so called in contradistinction from the institutions for humanistic or classical learning, and to be compared with the High Schools here; two (private) Mercantile Schools in Dresden and Leipzig, three or more "Gewerb Schools," i. e. technical schools in the manufacturing districts, one great Polytechnic institution with a school for architects in Dresden, a celebrated academy for miners in Freiberg, an academy for agriculturists and foresters in Tharand, five seminaries for teachers (it will be recollected that the first Normal school was erected in Germany at the beginning of the last century by Francke), an academy for drawing