the mound of earth permitting free access to rain, to the injury of the cementings and bandages.

Care of the Grafts.—Over-development of the young shoots from the graft in the first season is attended with certain dangers. The graft is liable to be loosened either by the weight of the vine or by the wind. The best means to avoid this danger is to fasten the young shoots to the protecting stakes mentioned above by cords or raphia attached to them. Pinching is often resorted to to turn the growth into the secondary shoots.

If the scion is not capable of receiving and assimulating the full quota of the sap that passes through the stock, and this is more apt to be the case if it has been set in May or April, shoots will arise from the stock. At first the only thing done is to cut them off as they appear, or with a slender knife, such as is used in gathering asparagus, to clip them a short distance below the surface of the mound. When the graft has grown strong enough, that is, when its canes have been fixed to the pegs around it, the hill may be broken away on one side and the under shoos thus reached and broken off and the roots which have proba bly developed at the base of the scion, particularly if the soil is rich and free, removed, after which the hill may be reduced one-half without ill effects.

It is perhaps advisable to wait until the second year after grafting to lay bare and manure grafted plants.

It happens frequently that there exists a difference of diameter between the graft and stock. With the Riparia this difference is more pronounced, and the stock after a few years becomes sickly and weak. To overcome this difficulty annular incisions penetrating as far as the first layers of wood are made near one another on the stock, which results in the promotion of the growth of cellular tissue around the gashes and directs the flow of descending sap to these points. Another method consists in letting a shoot develop just above the graft to absorb some of the overabundant nutriment of the scion.

The same causes that produce inequality of scion and stock induce round swellings at the suture, and this is especially characteristic of the Riparia. It may, in general, be reduced by slashing it lengthwise, or if the protuberance is very large sections of it may be removed, two wedge-shaped fourths of it opposite each other being cut

out.

Places for Grafting.-Having briefly reviewed the several methods of grafting generally employed in the reconstruction of French vineyards, there is still to be noted in this connection the place of grafting, viz, vineyard grafting, nursery grafting, and indoor grafting.

Vineyard Grafting.—The grafting of cuttings of one year's growth originally set in the vineyard where the vine is intended to be grown

presents the advantage of obviating all transplanting and consequent retarding of the full development of the vine. It has disadvantages, however, in the irregularity of the vineyard from the failure of certain cuttings to root or later in the failure of some of the grafts. In spite of these objections this method is very generally followed in south France and it is the custom to graft in nursery rows a number of plants to supply the place of any that may fail in the vineyard.

Nursery Grafting.-In south France, also, very good results are obtained by grafting in the nursery yearling plants, transplanting them to the vineyard one year afterwards. This method has the advantage of diminishing the expense of grafting and of affording an opportunity of selecting vines of equal strength and vigor for vineyard planting. The transplanting delays the fruiting of the vine one year.

Indoor Grafting.-Outside of the olive region or the extreme south of France grafting in vineyard or nursery generally results badly, on account of the prevailing cold and wet springs, which also make it very disagreeable to work out of doors. Indoor grafting may be done during the entire winter either on rooted plants or cuttings, and very much more rapidly than field work, and is generally preferred in climates where a warm, dry spring is not assured.

The grafts are planted in a nursery and on the year following are again transplanted into the vineyard.

Grafting on Cuttings.—In the foregoing discussion grafting on rooted stocks only, either in place in the vineyard, in the nursery row, or indoors, has been considered.

If the cutting is planted in the vineyard at once and grafted there after it has rooted there is no checking of growth as there is in the case of removal of the rooted cutting to the grafting room or transplanting from the nursery; and the vine comes into full bearing at least a year earlier than it otherwise would.

Another method of hastening the production of bearing vines, and one coming into very general use, is to graft cuttings directly. This method of producing vines grafted on resistant stock requires greater precautions and the percentage of success is of course much less than in the case of grafts on rooted stocks, but the advantages belonging to it outweigh the disadvantages and have given it an important place in French viticultural methods. These grafts can be made indoors and with machines during the entire winter and are preserved in moist sand until they are to be planted; and it is possible to have a plant grafted and rooted within one year or by forced culture within a few weeks. The decrease in the price of American cuttings by reason of their greater abundance renders less serious. the loss of more or less of the grafts; and by reason of the constant improvements in grafting-machines and methods this loss is steadily diminishing.

In the moist regions this method of grafting works very well, but in the drier Mediterranean regions it is necessary to irrigate.

The cutting to form the stock is given a length of two or three buds and is whip-grafted with a scion of a single bud. The graft is wrapped with a leaf of lead, which is itself secured with a band of rubber and raphia, or raphia is used alone. The cuttings thus grafted are planted in rows in furrows nearly as deep as the grafts are long; at the base of the cuttings is placed a little sand to facilitate the rooting. The grafted cutting is then entirely covered with fine earth.

The cutting in place, the trench is filled up to the level of the graft (Fig. 140 T) and the earth is thorougly settled and watered a little. The trench is then filled to the level of the ground with earth taken from the trench following, and finally a ridge of sand is made along the row over the tips of the cuttings.

GRAFTING SCHOOLS.

Owing to the many new modes of work necessitated by the condition under which viticulture in France has of late been placed, the establishment of schools to enable vine-growers to meet the novel circumstances was hit upon in the first instance by the Société de Viticulture de Lyon. Its example has been largely copied and the results obtained prove the wisdom of the departure. A class of diplomated specialists has come into being and their work in almost every part of Europe has considerably improved viticulture.

One school, devoted exclusively to women, has turned out remarkably skillful graduates and established conclusively the aptitude of women for grafting. The endowment of such schools in every viticultural center would promote viticultural interests more than any other means, above all in those districts where the restoration of the wine land has become, or is likely to become, necessary by reason of the losses occasioned by the Phylloxera.

AMERICAN VINES IN EUROPE AND PARTICULARLY IN FRANCE.

The very general resort to American stocks and vines since the advent of the Phylloxera trouble in France has greatly changed viticultural methods, and a consideration of the subject of American vines, always of first importance to the French vineyardists, will have a value for us, particularly in view of the similar conditions found in California to those of France.

The comparative immunity of American vines from the Phylloxera has been explained in various ways. The discovery that the rootinhabiting Phylloxera of France was of American origin made by me in 1871, proving beyond all doubt that the Phylloxera was introduced into France from this country, led me to explain the resistance of American vines by their having been subject to the attacks of the Phylloxera from time immemorial and thus having by natural selection acquired resistant qualities, and these consist, on the authority of Foëx, not so much in the greater vigor of the plants or in the presence in the roots of resinous matters objectionable to the Phylloxera, as in the nature of their cellular structure. The sections of roots illustrating his important work and upon which his theory is based certainly indicate a much denser exterior in the roots of Vitis riparia, rupestris, æstivalis, etc., than in the European V. vinifera.

Vines of the labrusca class being, as is well known, less resistant than other American vines, were found to be intermediate in structure, and the greater susceptibility of hybrids is explained in the same way. The fact, however, that certain varieties, like the Jacquez, when grown direct, resist the Phylloxera but fail in the same soil to do so as stocks, and also that varieties resistant in one locality lack that quality in another, as, for instance, the Clinton, shows that there is room for more extended observations and experiment on this point.

The cultivated vines of this country are not derived from a single species, as in the case with those of Europe, but from a considerable number of species. Several of these have an interest purely botanical and need not be discussed here. The American species of practical importance to the viticulturist are the following: V. æstivalis, V. riparia, V. labrusca, and V. rupestris.

The Estivalis Class.-The different varieties derived from V. æstivalis are commonly employed in France for direct production on account of the superior quality of their fruit. They are not easily propagated from cuttings and are usually grown on stocks of other species. The varieties ordinarily grown and most highly prized in France are the Jacquez, Herbemont, Black July, and Cunningham.

The Riparia (Cordifolia) Class.*-The varieties of Vitis riparia, both wild and cultivated, are used, almost exclusively, as resistant stocks in France, for which they easily take first rank. They are remarkably suited to this rôle, not only by reason of their power of resisting Phylloxera attack, but by the ease with which they may be grown from cuttings and afterwards grafted.

The following varieties have been shown to be especially adapted to this use in practice:

(1) The wild varieties; (2) the cultivated varieties-Solonis, Clinton, and Taylor.

The cuttings of the wild varieties of riparia are imported in large quantities into France from the Mississippi Valley States. The innumerable varieties of this species have been grouped into four principal races by Foëx as follows:

(1) V. riparia tomentous; (2) V. riparia glabrous, leaves thin; (3) V. riparia glabrous, leaves thick; (4) V. riparia, leaves small. The tomentous varieties are those of which the leaves and young branches are covered with down; they are of vigorous growth and furnish stocks of good diameter for grafting.

The glabrous thin-leaved varieties are remarkable for the great hardness or firmness assumed by their roots at an early age and their freedom from Phylloxera.

The varieties sold under the names Riparia Fabre and Riparia Martin des Pallières are highly prized by viticulturists.

The glabrous varieties with thick leaves are supposed to be hybrids of V. riparia with V. cordifolia, and include the important variety known as Scuppernong of the Jardin d'Acclimatation. It is remarkable for its resistance to the Phylloxera and Chlorosis and for its vigor, and is considered to be one of the best of stocks.

Of the cultivated varieties the Clinton, generally considered to be a direct descendant of V. riparia, was the first variety to have been noted as resistant to the Phylloxera, and is now in France of all the resistant American stocks the most widespread. It also furnishes an excellent wine.

The Taylor, considered (but in my judgment erroneously) to be a

*The species V. riparia and cordifolia are united for convenience only. V. cordifolia, long confounded with V. riparia, is shown to be a distinct species by Dr. Englemann and especially by M. Millardet. Planchon, in his Vignes Américaines, disposed of the matter by assigning V. cordifolia to species rank and dividing it up into three varieties, two wild: (1) Var. a, genuina; (2) var. b, riparia; and one cultivated variety, c, Solonis (Traité de la Vigne, Porter et Ruyssen, 1886, Tome 1, p. 322). However, in his monograph of the Ampelideæ, in De Candolle's great work. Planchon considers cordifolia and riparia as distinct species, and Solonis as a variety of the latter, or rather a hybrid of uncertain origin.

V. cordifolia is rare in cultivation because of the great difficulty of propagating it by cuttings. Plants in botanical gardens have generally been obtained from seeds.