The Instrumental.-Many verbs take this case; as mianować go wodzem, to name him leader.'

It is sometimes employed idiomatically with the verb 'to be;' as jestem gospodarzem, 'I am the master.' And the same is the case with zostawać, to become;' as został pielgrzymem, he has become a pilgrim.' The following examples will, it is believed, clearly illustrate the various uses of this case, which is often peculiarly employed in the Slavonic languages :-jechał nocą, he travelled during the night;' jadł łyżką, 'he ate with a spoon;' złapał zająca żywcem, 'he has caught a hare alive;' nazywal mnie przyjacielem, he called me friend.'

The Locative expresses in what place, or when, except the days of the week, when point of time is marked by the accusative; as we czwartek, Thursday.'

ADJECTIVES.

The adjective agrees in number, gender, and case with its substantive. When an adjective refers to the names of a man or a woman, or a man and an animal, it is put in the plural of the more worthy gender; but when the adjective is placed with several names of inanimate things, of whatever gender they may be, it is used in the neuter plural. In sentences where the two subjects of the verb are connected by the preposition 2, the verb may be put in the singular or the plural; as, ojciec z synem żył w zgodzie, or ojciec z synem żyli w zgodzie, the father lived peaceably with his son.'

z,

Collective substantives ending in stwo require the verb in the plural. With collective numerals the verb is put in the third person singular, and when in a past tense with the singular neuter; as, dwoje dzieci umarło, two children are dead.'

PRONOUNS.

Co, what,' is often used instead of ktory, when it refers not to the subject, but to the whole previous sentence.

Comparison of Adjectives.—If a superior thing is compared with an inferior, the adverbs niż, nizli, niżeli, aniżeli, must be used; as Droższe jest życie aniżeli majątek, Life is more valuable than goods.' But if superiority is attributed to the thing which is the object of the comparison, the adverb jak is placed after the comparative; as, Nie ma nic lepszego jak spokojne sumienie, 'There is nothing better than a quiet conscience.' Instead of the adverbs niż, niżli, niżeli, aniżeli, the preposition od may be employed with the genitive, or nad with the accusative: Ja jestem młodszy od ciebie, I am younger than thou.'

VERBS.

The preposition do is employed after verbs when it is desired to express an approximate number; as Było tu do trzy dziestu ludzi, There were here almost thirty men.' Od is used to designate the place or the time after which a thing is begun; as, od piątego roku, from the fifth year.' Od is used after passive participles and neuter verbs, to express the agent or instrument; as kochany od przyjacioł,

loved by one's friends;' umiera od żalu, he is dying of grief.' Z is also used to express the instrument or agent; as mdleje z słabosci, he faints from weakness:' so also przez-thus we may equally say wybrany od wojska, or wybrany przez wojsko, elected by the army.'

Nad is used with the instrumental after verbs implying pity, grief, astonishment, or vengeance. The occasions on which the preposition w are employed remind us of the difference in Latin between the uses of in with the accusative and with the ablative; as zamienić w chleb, 'to change into bread;' oblec w szatę, 'to surround with a garment.'

The preposition z governs the genitive of substantives to express material, as dom z drzewa, a house of wood,' which can also be expressed by the adjective, as dom drzewniany; also to imply motion from, as in English; and it is the ordinary case after the superlative, as najpilniejszy z nich, the most industrious of them.'

ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE.

Owing to the Polish language being in a highly synthetic state, great licence is allowed in this respect. Much must depend upon the taste of the writer; and, in order to get a good style in composition, good works should be read, such as Lelewel's "History of Poland," or the "Ballads" of Mickiewicz, which would be useful for the beginner. It may be remarked, however, that a preposition cannot be separated from the noun which it governs, and the adverb must be put either immediately before or after the word which it qualifies. Any conjunction may begin a sentence, except

zaś and bowiem. The verb is frequently put at the end of a sentence. The adjective and participle can be separated, by many words, from the substantives with which they agree. Thus, Domowe między następcami Karola Wielkego w rozdzielonem cesarstwie rozruchy, The domestic troubles among the successors of Charles the Great in his divided empire.'

In order to convey to the reader a fair idea of the construction of a sentence, the following lines are given, selected from "Lelewel's History of Poland," Dzieje Polski, page 58. (Leipzig, 1837) :

Pomimo opłakanego polożenia w jakim się Polska In spite of the melancholy condition in which herself Poland

znajdowała, nie można powiedzieć aby found, not is possible to say

that

miała być biedną she found herself poor

life was Ludność Polska

i znędzioną, tylko w niej ładu i publicznego życia niedosand miserable, only in her of order and public tawało, które umiał obudzić Łokietek. not which understood how to stimulate Lokietek. The people Polish widocznie wzrastała, liczba wsi i miast pomnożyła się, visibly increased, the number of villages and cities augmented itself i wielu Polaków szło w Litwę i na Ruś, fortuny szukać. and many Poles went to Lithuania and to Russia, fortunes to seek. Licznych księstw stolice podnoząc się pocięgnąly za Of many principalities, the capitals raising themselves, drew after sobą wzrost wielu innych miast. Murowano koscioły them the growth of many other cities. They built of stone churches Po dworach szlaIn the abodes belong

i klasztory a w miastach i domy. w miastach i domy. and convents, and in the cities also houses.

checkich i znamienitszych

ing to gentlemen, and notable

it was

wiejskich domach, można country

houses possible było widzić piece i w ścianie pomieszczone z wyprowadto see stoves, and in the wall placed with built -zoną nad dach szyją kominy, co nie mało, do wygody up above roof projection chimneys, which not a little to convenience i zdrowia przyczyniło. Okna były niewielkie, ale szklanne. and health contributed. The windows were small, but made of glass. Szkło rozpowszechniało się. Obok dawnych drzewnianych, (The use of) glass spread itself. By the side of old

earthen

or

sklenice i butelki. glasses and bottles.

wooden,

glinianych lub metalowych kubków i baniek stawały metallic goblets and cups stood Polewane gliniane naczynia, coraz w Glazed earthen Vessels, always in upowszechniały się. Do ubioru developed themselves. For the furniture

lepszym

the best

gatunku
style

The following points of syntax in this passage seem worthy of special attention:

Nie można, used impersonally, as explained on page 50. With this may be compared było potrzeba, like the Latin opus fuit, a few lines further on.

Być biedną :—this construction, very much used in the Slavonic languages, is explained on page 58.