the power and wisdom of Jehovah. Have they styled them “everlasting," as in Gen. xlix. 26, Deut. xxxiii. 15, from the belief of their co-existence with the earth1? The term (giboe) is said to mean a hill or mountain, from its " conical" form; and hence have argued in favour of the deluge.

some

Nitre.]-The natron 3 or nitre of the ancients, is evidently from (nutar), and so called from its ready solution in liquids, and from its loosening and abstersive qualities. Prov. xxv. 20; Jer. ii. 22. Its scientific name now is "nitrate of potash," and is classed with salts.

Secondly-WAters.

Variously applied.]-There is scarcely any term of a more frequent metaphorical use than this by Biblical writers. Hence they use it for posterity, Is. xlviii. 1, Numb. xxiv. 7: for multitudes of people, Rev. xvii. 15 for affliction, Lam. iii. 54, Ps. lxix. 1: for tears, Jer. ix. 1: and some they call faithful, Is. xxxiii. 16: and others strange, stolen, Prov. ix, 17.

Several Qualities. And though their object was not to philosophise, yet have they incidentally noticed certain qualities of water, as bitter, Exod. xv. 23: fructifying, Job. xxix. 19, Ps. i. 3: cold, Prov. xxv. 25: living or refreshing, Cant. iv. 15: filthy, Isa. lvii. 20: and mineral, if the pool of Bethesda, John v. 1-9, can be so interpreted!

ים המלח

Saltness of Sea.]—There is at least one "Sea of Salt," " (im emelach), of which the Scriptures speak not fewer than seven times; namely, in Gen. xiv. 3; Numb. xxxiv. 12; Deut. iii. 17; Josh. iii. 16, xii. 3; xv. 2, 5, and xviii. 19; though they give us no information on the general "saltness of the sea," about which philosophers have foolishly perplexed themselves.

Thirdly-STONEs.

Manifold Use.]-The repeated and exceedingly diversified application of the word (aben) stone, may be seen in the Dictionaries and Concordances of the Bible; nor would it be an unedifying exercise to amplify such a particular.

Rocks.]-From its cragginess

(salo), denotes a rock; and

1 Calmet's Bib. Encyclop. on "Mountains"; and Horne's Introduct. to Crit. Knowl. of the Script. vol. iii. p. 48.

2 Catcott's Treatise on the Deluge, p. 247, 2d edit.; quoted by Parkhurst in his Hebrew Lexicon, p. 95. note.

3 Dr. Shaw's Travels, p. 479, 2d edit. New and complete Dictionary of Arts, in "Natrum."

Parkes' Chemical Catechism, p. 193, 10th edit. 1822.

5" Mineral Waters," judiciously noticed in Bingley's Usef. Know. i. p. 248 -266.-Fragments to Calmet, No. Ixvi. p. 117–120.

6 An analysis of its waters, by Chateaubriand, is given in Calmet's Bib. Encyclop. vol. i. on "Asphaltus." See also supra, Vol. I. p. 260.

or 14 (tsar or isur), also a rock or flint, whose parts are compacted or bound hard by the compressure of the expansion. When the latter is applied to God, the Sept. usually translate it Oɛos. Both of them are often beautifully applied, particularly as in Deut. xxxii. 131, and Job. xxiv. 8.2

Pearls.]-The Arabians, Persians, and Turks use the word merovarid to signify pearls 3; akin to which may possibly be the margarites or margaritas of the Greeks and Latins; and the Hebrew (peninim), hitherto vulgarly read "rubies." Job. xxviii. 18; Prov. iii. 15; Lam. iv. 7.

Stones of Value.]—On the difficult subject of "stones of value," it would scarcely be justice to write any thing, unless there were space for a minute and full investigation. In Exodus, in Isaiah, in Ezekiel, and Revelations, their order is interestingly stated.

Fourthly-MEtals.5

Copper and Iron.]-If the order of chronology may be here observed, then do copper and iron demand the first notice; for the and

(nuchshith and berzal) of the Hebrew Scriptures were in use among the Antediluvians 6: Gen. iv. 22. Noticed in Job xxviii. 2, and Numb. xxxi. 22.

(kasaph), commonly

Silver. Next in succession was silver, used in Abraham's days, Gen. xiii. 2; and as this was most generally employed by the ancients in their commercial dealings, so the term became applied to money in general, as apyuptor, in Greek, and l'argent, in French. Comp. 1 Chron. xxi. 22, 24, with ver. 25. The modern coin is an alloy of silver and copper.

Gold.]-The most valuable of all is gold, in which Abram was very rich, Gen. xiii. 2. While (zeb) denotes the purity of its nature, it is also called (phez) from its solidity, Psa. xix. 11; (cheruts), Prov. viii. 10, (whence xpvoos) because of its being

1 Harmer's Observations, vol. ii. p. 195.

2 Niebuhr's Voyage en Arabie, tom. i. p. 187.

3"Pearls," in Calmet's Bib. Encyclop. vol. ii.-See likewise Hutchinson's Works; Cooke's Enquiry into the Patriarch. and Druid. Relig.; Bate's Crit. Bib.; Costard's Hist. of Astronomy; Hyde's Relig. Vet. Pers.; Nature displayed:-in Parkhurst's Heb. Lex. p. 582-584.

The student may read with much pleasure "Chap. iv. Of Precious Stones," in Lamy's Introduction, pages 434-442. Edit. 1723.

5 A feast of moral and mental pleasure has been provided by Mr. Parkes, in "Chap. x. Of the Metals."-Chem. Catechism, pages 258–362.

6"The attainments of the Antediluvians in the arts appear to have been considerable. The smelting of metals is mentioned, and a sort of community (as we understand the Sacred historian) who, in the time of Tubal Cain, the seventh in descent from Adam, were artificers in brass and iron.-Gen. iv. 22." -"Antediluvians," in Encyclop. Metropol. part v. p. 657.

7 Parkhurst's Hebrew Lexicon, p. 90, and 443.

Its various appellations are well illustrated in Dissert. xxviii. of Leusden's Philolog. Heb. p. 187; and Lamy's Introduction, p. 447.

increased the effect. To us, on the other hand, however we may hold these facts in veneration, however great and striking they may be in themselves, the distance of time and place must of necessity render them less interesting.

The manner in which these metaphors are formed is well deserving of observation, and is in fact as follows. In describing or embellishing illustrious actions, or future events of a miraculous nature, the Hebrew poets are accustomed to introduce allusions to the actions of former times, such as possess a conspicuous place in their history; and thus they illuminate with colours, foreign indeed, but similar, the future by the past, the recent by the antique, facts less known by others more generally understood; and as this property seems peculiar to the poetry of the Hebrews, at least is but seldom to be met with in that of other nations, we have determined to illustrate this part of our subject with a greater variety of examples than usual. We mean, therefore, to instance in a regular order certain topics or common-places of Scripture, which seem to have furnished, if not all, at least the principal part of these allusions: it will be necessary at the same time to remark their figurative power and effect, and the regular and uniform method pursued in the application of them, which has been already stated as characteristic of the poetical imagery of the Hebrews.

The first of these topics, or common-places, is the Chaos and the Creation, which compose the first pages of the sacred history. These are constantly alluded to, as expressive of any remarkable change, whether prosperous or adverse, in the public affairs; of the overthrow or restoration of kingdoms and nations; and are consequently very common in the prophetic poetry, particularly when any unusual degree of boldness is attempted. If the subject be the destruction of the Jewish empire by the Chaldeans, or a strong denunciation of ruin against the enemies of Israel, it is depicted in exactly the same colours as if universal nature were about to relapse into the primeval chaos. Thus Jeremiah, in that sublime, and indeed more than poetical vision, in which is represented the impending desolation of Judæa:

I beheld the earth, and lo! disorder and confusion;

The heavens also, and there was no light.

I beheld the mountains, and lo! they trembled;

And all the hills shook.

I beheld, and lo! there was not a man ;

And all the fowls of the heavens were fled.

I beheld, and lo! the fruitful field (was become) the desert;

And all its cities were thrown down,

Before the presence of Jehovah,

Before the fierce heat of his anger.1

Jer. iv. 23-26.

And on a similar subject Isaiah expresses himself with wonderful force and sublimity:

And he shall stretch over her the line of devastation,
And the plummet of emptiness.1

Each of them not only had in his mind the Mosaic chaos, but actually uses the words of the divine historian. The same subjects are amplified and embellished by the prophets with several adjuncts :

The sun and the moon are darkened,
And the stars withdraw their shining.
Jehovah also will thunder from Sion,

And from Jerusalem will he utter his voice;
And the heavens and the earth shall shake.*

And all the host of heaven shall waste away:

And the heavens shall be rolled up like a scroll;
And all their host shall wither;

As the withered leaf falleth from the vine,

And as the blighted fig from the fig-tree.3

On the contrary, when he foretels the restoration of the Israelites :

For I am Jehovah thy God;

He who stilleth at once the sea,
Though the waves thereof roar;
Jehovah God of Hosts is his name.

I have put my words in thy mouth;

And with the shadow of my hand have I covered thee:

To stretch out the heavens, and to lay the foundations of the earth;

And to say unto Sion, Thou art my people.

1 Isa. xxxiv. 11.

2 Joel iii. 15, 16.

3 Isa. xxxiv. 4.

4 Isa. li. 15, 16. (ragang), “ tranquillizing, (or) instantaneously stilling :" it is commonly rendered clearing, dividing, not only in this, but in the parallel places, Jer. xxxi. 35, Job xxvi. 12. I am, however, of opinion, that the meaning of the word has been totally mistaken. It denotes strictly something instantaneous; a cessation of motion, or a sudden quieting; as when a bird suddenly lights upon a tree. See Isa. xxxiv. 14. The Septuagint very properly renders it, in the above-quoted passage in Job, xaTETUJE. Consult the Concordance. "If any doubt can remain concerning this translation of the word ragang, it will meet sufficient confirmation from the Arabic, in which the same verb implies, to reduce a thing to its former, or a better, state. Whence are derived the following words, regung, a lake, (as it were a flood of water stopped and confined); ragiang, to stop or confine a flood of water; ragangan, stagnant or confined waters."-Mr. Henley.

Concerning the phrase “to stretch out the heavens," consult Vitring. in loc.-Bishop Lowth.

"Ver. 16. To stretch out the heavens] In the present text it is y, to plant the heavens: the phrase is certainly very obscure; and in all probability is a mistake for me. This latter is the word used in ver. 13, just before, in the very same sentence; and this phrase occurs frequently in Isa. chap. xl. 22, xlii. 5, xliv. 24, xlv. 12. The former in no other place. It is also very remarkable, that in the Samaritan text, Numb. xxiv. 6, these two words are twice changed by mistake, one for the other, in the same verse."-Bishop Lowth's Isaiah, Notes, p. 231.

There is also another prophecy of the same divine poet, which in one sense (though not the principal) is to be understood as relating to the liberation of the Israelites from the Babylonish captivity. In the exordium the same imagery is introduced, but in a very noble personification, than which nothing can be more sublime:

Awake, awake, clothe thyself with strength, O arm of Jehovah!
Awake, as in the days of old, the ancient generations.

Art thou not the same that smote Rahab, that wounded the dragon?
Art thou not the same that dried up the sea, the waters of the great deep?
That made the depths of the sea a path for the redeemed to pass through?1

Of the same kind, is the last of these topics which shall be instanced, the descent of Jehovah at the delivery of the Law. When the Almighty is described as coming to execute judgment, to deliver the pious, and to destroy his enemies, or in any manner exerting his divine power upon earth, the description is embellished from that tremendous scene which was exhibited upon Mount Sinai: there is no imagery more frequently recurred to than this, and there is none more sublime.

For, behold, Jehovah will go forth from his place;

And he will come down, and will tread on the high places of the earth.
And the mountains shall be molten under him :

And the valleys shall cleave asunder;

As wax before the fire,

As waters poured down a steep place.3

The earth shook and was alarmed,

And the foundations of the hills rocked with terror,

For the wrath of Jehovah was hot against them.

Before his face a smoke ascended,

And a flame consumed before his presence,

Burning fires were kindled by it.

He bowed the heavens and came down,

And clouds of darkness were beneath his feet.

He rode upon the pinions of the cherubim,

And flew on the wings of the wind.

He concealed himself in a veil of darkness;

A pavilion encompassed him

Of black water, and thick clouds of æther. 4

From the brightness before him thick clouds passed along,
Hailstones and burning fires.

Jehovah thundered in the heavens ;

And the most high God sent forth his voice;

He shot out his arrows and dispersed the enemies,

And he multiplied his thunder and confounded them. 5

"The

4 Ver. 13 and 14. They seem to be corrected by the parallel passage, 2 Sam. xxii. 13, 14. See Kennicott, Dissert. i. Of the Hebrew Text, p. 464. words N 2, which are now repeated in ver. 14, are wanting in four manuscripts." Kennicott. Bp. Lowth.

5 Psal. xviii. 7—14.