what are termed cognate verbs. By cognate verbs, in Greek, are meant verbs of which the radical part was the same, and the signification precisely the same, but in which some little difference took place in the terminations or the initial letters; variations which, it is probable, mostly arose at first from the different ways of pronouncing and accenting the same word in different places. In the earlier periods of the Greek language, the use of these cognates, each of which had a set of tenses regularly formed from it, according to the usual analogy of the language, was very common; thus, TW, τυπέω, τύφω, τυφέω, τύφθω, τυφθέω, τετύπω, were all cognates of τύπτω, all signifying the same thing, and each having a regular set of tenses formed from it. As the language became improved and fixed, some of the tenses of these cognates were incorporated into the primitive verb, and the use of the remainder, for the most part, gradually dropped, one regular form of every verb being adopted. Occasionally, however, some of the tenses from particular cognates, which had been in more general and constant use than the rest, were retained; and those tenses now and then occur in the best Greek writers.

The formation of these cognates from the radical verb, was generally in a mode either the same, or nearly similar to one or other of those already pointed out for the variations of the present and imperfect. The tenses of each were regularly formed from their proper present.

As the number of the verbs occurring in the New Testament, the Septuagint, and the more common Greek writers, with tenses thus formed from cognates, is not great, it will be the best way of explaining them, to mention each separately, with the formation of the principal tenses:

their formation; whereas, the verbs rendered irregular in the other tenses, by the use of cognates being few, and every one formed in a different mode, are most easily comprehended by being stated

Irregularities arising from the adoption of Tenses from Verbs of different forms

but of the same Signification.

It sometimes happened that, in Greek, two or more verbs totally different in form, were used to express the same thing; as, αγορεύω and ἔπω, I say, τρέχω and δραμέω, Ι run. When one of these verbs was found to be defective, that is, when some of the tenses that should have been formed from it, were found not to be in use, grammarians, in laying down rules for the language, supplied their place by stating, as belonging to one defective verb, the tenses formed from another synonymous one. Though this does not properly constitute an irregularity in the language itself, but only in the manner in which it has been analysed, yet, as in all lexicons and grammars, these borrowed tenses are uniformly stated as belonging to the verb, it is necessary to mention such as have had tenses of this kind adapted to them. These are chiefly the following:

To these irregular verbs, it has been usual with grammarians to add DEFECTIVE and POETICAL Verbs, INCEPTIVES, DESIDERATIVES, &c. which generally have only the present and imperfect tenses, and are formed from other verbs by slight changes in the characteristic, or by reduplication of the initial letters. As in general, however, verbs of this description have the structure of the tenses, so far as they go, entirely regular, and their presents are to be found in the lexicon, it is unnecessary to enter into any particular investigation of them.

SECTION VII.

OF THE PARTICIPLE.

THE participle is so called, because it partakes at once of the nature of a noun and a

verb.

Participles are a particular kind of adjectives, derived immediately from verbs, expressing the attribute or action of the verb with time, but without any affirmation. The verb and the adjective noun so far agree, that both of them express an attribute or property of a person or thing; but they differ in this, that in the adjective, the attribute and nothing more is expressed; in the verb, besides the attribute or action, there is implied an affirmation concerning it, and a time to which that affirmation relates.

The participle, like the adjective, expresses a property or attribute; and like

3

the verb, expresses a time to which it relates; but it carries with it no affirmation. Thus, when it is said, ó žvng túπte, the man strikes; striking is the attribute or action ascribed to the man, the present time is marked, and an affirmation is included, that this property or action of striking belongs, at this time, to the man; but when we say only, g TÚTTWy, a man striking; striking is properly only an adjective, denoting an attribute of the man, with the time expressed in which we signify that this property or action is to be understood as belonging to him.

As the participle implies time, it has, accordingly, in Greek, like the verb, the variations of present, past, and future; and as it expresses the attribute or action of the verb, it has likewise the variations of active and passive in all languages, and, in Greek, of active, middle, and passive.

From the scantiness of participles in English, it is impossible to translate most of the Greek participles correctly, without using a circumlocution.

The following are the participles of the Greek verb:

Active.

PRESENT.

Middle.

Passive.

TT, in the act of strik- TUTTÓμvos, in the act of TUTтóμevos, in striking by

τύψων, τυπῶν, about to strike. τυψόμενος, τυπούμενος, about τυφθησόμενος, τυπησόμενος,

to strike myself.

about to be struck.

Examples of all the participles, with the manner of their formation, and of their inflection, have been given under the adjective and the verb.

SECTION VIII.

OF THE ADVERB.

THE adverb is a part of speech, added, as it were, to other words, verbs, adjectives, &c. to express some modification or circumstance of a quality, an action, or an affirmation.

* This holds strictly true in Greek, and in some other languages, but in English it does not so exactly take place; for, in English, there are properly only two participles, an Active, (striking,) and a Passive, (struck,) which may be applied indiscriminately to time past, present, or future. It is true, the active participle carries something of an idea of present time, and the passive an idea of past time, but these are rather vaguely denoted. In fact, the participle in English approaches much nearer the nature of an adjective noun, than it does in Greek.

Qualities may be possessed to a greater or less extent; actions may be performed with different degrees of frequency, vigour, and skill; affirmations may be made in an absolute or conditional, a doubtful or a positive form; to almost all objects belong the relations of time and place; and in most, a certain arrangement either does, or may subsist, which it is necessary to have in view, when they are the subjects of contemplation. All these, and other similar circumstances or modifications of things, are expressed by adverbs, which are merely an abridged mode of speech, to denote by one word, what might, by a circumlocution, be resolved into two or more; exceedingly," for instance, is the same as "in a high degree;" "here," the same as " in this place;" "thus," the same as "in this manner." Adverbs may, therefore, be regarded as less necessary, and introduced later into use, than many other classes of words. Accordingly, we find that they are all either immediately or remotely derived from words previously established in the language. Most commonly, they are derived from adjec tives or participles, not unfrequently from nouns, sometimes from pronouns, and, in a few instances, from verbs.

As adverbs are all indeclinable, admitting of no change by flection of any kind, and as all of them are to be found in their proper places in every Lexicon, it is unnecessary to give any list of them. The following general remarks, however, may facilitate the knowledge of this part of speech to the learner:

In Greek, adverbs of quality commonly terminate in ws, and are derived from the genitive plural of the corresponding adjective, by changing into ; as, from, genitive plural of us, sharp, comes ¿ews, sharply; from any, genitive plural of annons, true, comes dλnews, truly.

Adverbs of time are frequently formed by adding 7 to the primitive word; as, from ó, which, is formed örɛ, at which time, when; rò, the, TóTE, at the time, then.

Adverbs denoting number, generally have their termination in ax65, which is equivalent to our English word times; as, wodλáxıç, many times, often, from wonus, many; doάxis, how many times, how often, from oros, how great; Teτánis, five times, from πέντε, five.

Adverbs denoting distribution or arrangement, end in dov; as, ixadov, troop by troop, from ἵλη, a troop ; κλιμακηδὸν, step by step, from κλίμαξ, a step; αγεληδόν, fock by flock, from yan, a flock.

Some adverbs in do, and those in dny, and T, signify manner or resemblance; as, xvvndò, after the manner of a dog, impudently, from xvwv; xgußòǹv, after the manner of concealment, secretly, from xgunt; Papaiori, after the manner of the Romans, in the Roman language, from 'Papaios, a Roman.

The other terminations of adverbs are too numerous to be reduced to general rules, but must be learned by use.

Some adverbs admit of degrees of comparison, or, to speak more properly, there are adverbs derived from adjectives in each of these degrees; as, from roos, wise, comes oops, wisely; from cowregos, wiser, ao wregws, more wisely; from rówτatos, wisest, σοφωτατῶς, most wisely.

If the positive adverb ends in w, so do the comparative and superlative; as, žvw, upwards, comparative, ¿vwrigw, superlative, avrάtw.

ADVERBIAL PARTICLES.

Besides those adverbs which are used by themselves, there is a species of words, termed adverbial particles, which are only used in composition, and either prefixed or added to other words to modify their signification.

Adverbial particles prefixed to words are the following:

, used in three different senses, which perhaps were originally indicated by the tone of the speaker. 1st, In a privative or negative sense; e. g. äxagis, unthankful, from a prefixed to χάρις, thanks ; άφθιτος, incorruptible, from a prefixed to φθίτος, corruptible, 2d, In an augmentative or increased sense; as, aunos, full of wood, from a prefixed